Conservative hegemony is a political phenomenon characterized by the predominance of conservative ideologies and practices in a country's government. In this context, the causes for the emergence of this hegemony can be related to several factors, such as dissatisfaction with previous governments, economic crises, cultural and social changes, among others. Characteristics of this type of government include conservative policies, such as the defense of traditional values, the reduction of the size of the state, and an emphasis on security and public order, among others.
The consequences of conservative hegemony can be varied, impacting the country's economy, society, and international relations. Furthermore, the presidents who lead these governments play a fundamental role in consolidating and maintaining this hegemony, being responsible for implementing conservative policies and representing the interests of the political group that supports them.
Identifying Conservatives: Learn more about this political group and their ideas.
Conservatives are a political group that advocates for the maintenance of established traditions and social values. They tend to oppose sudden changes in society and believe in the importance of order, authority, and stability. Economically, conservatives generally advocate policies that favor the free market and private enterprise.
Conservative ideas have been influential in various countries throughout history, and often manifest themselves in specific political parties. In Brazil, for example, the Brazilian Social Democracy Party (PSDB) is considered a conservative party.
Conservatives tend to value family, religion, and country, and advocate for the preservation of cultural traditions. They are also often critical of social movements that seek radical transformations in society.
Throughout history, conservatives have played an important role in the politics of various countries, advocating positions ranging from the defense of private property to resistance to changes in social customs. They are often seen as defenders of order and social stability, in opposition to more progressive movements.
It is important to understand the ideas and values of conservatives to better understand the current political landscape and the ideological disputes that characterize contemporary society.
Conservative hegemony: causes, characteristics, consequences, presidents.
Conservative hegemony is a political phenomenon characterized by the predominance of conservative ideas and values in a given society. It can be the result of a variety of factors, such as economic crises, popular dissatisfaction with previous governments, and the rise of charismatic leaders.
The characteristics of conservative hegemony include the defense of order, authority, and social stability, as well as the appreciation of cultural traditions and conservative moral values. It can result in public policies that favor the economic elite and the maintenance of the status quo.
The consequences of conservative hegemony can include increased social inequality, restricted individual rights, and reduced space for progressive social movements. Furthermore, conservative hegemony can generate resistance and protests from groups that feel marginalized or oppressed.
In Brazil, conservative hegemony was marked by governments such as those of Fernando Henrique Cardoso and Jair Bolsonaro, who adopted both liberal and conservative economic policies in various aspects. These presidents represented the predominance of conservative ideas in Brazilian politics, influencing public debate and political decisions.
Conservative party ideology: traditional principles and defense of social and economic order.
Conservative hegemony is a political phenomenon characterized by the predominance of a conservative party in a given country or region. In Brazil, the ideology of conservative parties is based on traditional principles and the defense of social and economic order. Conservatives value the preservation of traditions, family, private property, and social hierarchy.
Conservatives defend individual freedom, but believe that this freedom must always be in harmony with the established order. They oppose sudden changes in society and the economy, preferring stability and continuity. For conservatives, social and economic order is fundamental to the proper functioning of society.
In practice, conservative hegemony can be observed in several countries throughout history. In Brazil, for example, conservative hegemony was marked by governments that prioritized the maintenance of social and economic order, even to the detriment of more profound social changes. Some Brazilian presidents who represented this hegemony were Juscelino Kubitschek and Fernando Henrique Cardoso.
Despite its criticisms, conservative hegemony has also had positive consequences, such as economic and political stability in some periods. However, it's important to be aware of the potential excesses and setbacks that can occur when a single party or ideology dominates a country's political landscape for too long.
Conservative hegemony: causes, characteristics, consequences, presidents
A conservative hegemony was a period in Colombian history in which the Conservative Party remained in power uninterruptedly for 44 years. This period began in 1886 and ended in 1930, when the Liberals regained power.
Clashes between political factions were a constant feature of Colombian history since its independence. In 1863, radical liberals enacted the Rionegro Constitution, establishing a federal republic. Despite some gains in freedom, by the late 1970s, the country was experiencing a major crisis.
Rafael Núñez, a liberal in his early days, promoted a movement he called Regeneration. His intention was to repeal the reforms enacted by the Liberal Party and restore administrative centralism. When he became president, supported by conservatives, Núñez enacted a new constitution, a development that ushered in conservative hegemony.
During four decades of conservative governments, Colombia went through difficult times, such as the Thousand Days' War and the separation of Panama. On the positive side, in the 20th century, the country experienced significant economic growth, which served to improve its infrastructure.
background
Colombia, under its various names, has never achieved political stability since its proclamation as an independent country. This instability was caused, among other things, by the clash between federalists (generally liberals) and centralists (mainly conservatives).
One of the frequent civil conflicts ultimately led to Tomás Cipriano Mosquera's election as president. A champion of federalism, he renamed the country the United States of Colombia.
Radical Olympus
When the civil war ended in 1863, radical liberals enacted the Rionegro Constitution, marking the beginning of the period called Radical Olympus.
This period lasted until 1886 and was characterized by liberals' attempts to transform the country. In addition to introducing federalism, the leaders promoted economic liberalism and measures that sought to modernize Colombia and leave behind colonial structures.
Regeneration
The political and economic model imposed by the Radical Olympus began to crumble in the 1870s. Colombia was experiencing a major economic crisis, due to the weakness of the private sector, the decline in exports (except in the case of coffee) and the lack of industry.
In this context, a faction of the liberals supported Rafael Núñez in the 1876 presidential elections. Although he lost to Aquileo Parra, Núñez established himself as the leader of the independent liberals and began demanding structural reforms based on what he called Regeneration.
Among the changes demanded by Núñez was the end of federalism and the central government's intervention in the economy. He argued that the state should boost industry, build more infrastructure, and encourage foreign investment.
In 1878, Núñez was elected to the Senate, this time as the Conservative Party candidate. He also served as president of Congress until 1880. That same year, Núñez prevailed in the new presidential elections.
1886 Constitution
Rafael Núñez won the 1884 elections again, although illness delayed his inauguration. The following year, radical liberals used an internal conflict in the state of Santander to launch an uprising that spread throughout the country and led to civil war.
The radical liberals' ultimate goal was to overthrow Núñez. Their attempt was unsuccessful, and the conservatives won the contest. Afterward, Núñez himself announced that the Rionegro Constitution was no longer valid.
On September 10, 1885, the Colombian president convened a Constituent Assembly. The result was a new Magna Carta, approved in 1886, which did away with the centralism and liberal principles of the previous one.
Causes
The first president of the conservative hegemony was José María Serrano, who took office in 1886. However, the country's strongman was Rafael Núñez.
Economic problems
The Liberal government attempted to improve the economy through a system based on liberalism. However, the results were not as expected, especially after 1870.
The lack of a strong private sector and reduced government participation in the economy led to the country's impoverishment. The already weak domestic market declined further.
Opposition to federalism
The confrontation between federalists and centralists was constant from the declaration of independence onward. The Rionegro Constitution organized the country as a federal state, with broad powers granted to the provinces.
During the period when the country was called the United States of Colombia, instability was constant. Furthermore, the electoral system, with votes held on different dates depending on the state, caused problems in the formation of governing bodies.
Núñez stated that this federalism was ruining the country and made its elimination one of the bases of Regeneration.
Relations with the Church
The Catholic Church in Colombia held power inherited from the colonial era. Liberals, especially its radical faction, sought to reduce its political and social influence. To this end, they decreed the effective separation of Church and State and promoted secular education.
Conservatives, for their part, maintained historical ties to the ecclesiastical institution and opposed the loss of power. For Núñez, for example, taking a stand against the Church meant disrespecting the vast majority of the deeply Catholic population.
Characteristics of conservative hegemony
The 1886 Constitution reflected all the characteristics of conservative hegemony. This Magna Carta, based on Regeneration, reorganized the country as a centralized state, with a president who accumulated legislative power and control over public order.
Return to colonial traditions
The social base that sustained conservative hegemony was composed primarily of the upper classes: landowners, clergy, military personnel, and oligarchs. All agreed on the desire to maintain the structures inherited from the colonial era, both politically and economically.
This led, for example, to the land ownership structure remaining unchanged, as well as the rejection of the abolition of slavery.
Proximity to the Church
The alliance between conservatives and the Church led the government to negotiate a concordat with the Vatican that gave enormous powers to the clergy.
During the conservative hegemony, Catholicism became Colombia's official religion. The Church obtained control of the educational system, which meant it was responsible for ensuring that education conformed to religious standards.
Business
The Conservative Party attempted to limit the free-market policies imposed by the Liberals. However, the early years of this period were not good for the Colombian economy, mainly due to events such as the Thousand Days' War and the secession of Panama.
In 1904, the situation began to improve. President Rafael Reyes granted aid to merchants and farmers, which boosted consumption and exports. A few years later, the United States paid a large compensation for the Panama Canal, money used to build infrastructure.
On the other hand, Colombia also benefited from the boom in coffee exports, which became the country's main source of foreign exchange.
The hiring of the Kemmerer Mission served to modernize Colombia's economic structures. Likewise, the country began to industrialize. Despite all this, in the late 1920s, a new crisis hit the country.
Political and union repression
The conservatives also repealed some of the laws enacted by the liberals in the area of individual liberties. As a result, censorship returned to the country, many journalists were arrested, and many newspapers were closed.
Likewise, conservative hegemony ensured that liberals could not access important positions. To this we must add that many opponents were sent to prison or exile.
The country's industrialization in the 20th century led to the emergence of labor unions seeking to improve workers' rights. Confrontation between conservative governments, business advocates, and labor movements was constant for years.
The repression culminated in the so-called Banana Massacre. Thousands of United Fruit Company workers were killed during a strike demanding better employment.
Consequences
Conservative hegemony has had significant consequences for Colombia. Some, such as the formation of stable and positive public institutions, are negative. Others, such as censorship or union repression.
Expansion of coffee growing
Conservative governments modernized the coffee industry to make it the basis of their exports. To do this, they helped large businesses improve production.
The result was a significant increase in revenue thanks to the grain export tax. This money, despite corruption allegations, was partially used to improve infrastructure.
Transportation development
In the early 20th century, conservative hegemonic governments expanded railway networks throughout Colombia.
In 1919, commercial aviation began operating in the country. The company was responsible for this, with German participation.
Industry development
The conservatives also pushed for the country's industrialization to prevent agriculture from becoming the only important economic activity. Initially, they had to import machinery from abroad, although this gradually changed. Much of these industries were in foreign hands.
On the negative side, this industrialization led to the migration of many former agricultural workers to the cities. Working and living conditions were very negative, with many pockets of poverty. Union attempts to improve this situation were violently repressed by the government.
Thousand Days' War
The Liberals, removed from power by the Conservatives, organized several armed revolts in the provinces. In 1899, one of them ended in a bloody civil war.
It is estimated that one hundred thousand people died during the conflict and the country was completely devastated.
Presidents
The presidents during this period were José Maria Campo Serrano, Eliseo Payán, Rafael Núñez, Carlos Holguín Mallarino, Miguel Antonio Caro, Manuel Antonio Sanclemente, José Manuel Marroquín, Rafael Reyes, Ramón González Valencia, Carlos Eugenio Restrepo, José Vicente Concha, Marco Fidel and José Vicente Concha. Suárez, Jorge Holguín Mallarino, Pedro Nel Ospina and Miguel Abadía Méndez
Each presidential term had its own characteristics: some presidents, like the first two, governed for only a year and therefore had little impact; others allowed figures from the Liberal Party to enter their government; and some, like Rafael Reyes, played an important role in Colombian history.
José María Campo Serrano (1886-1887), Eliseo Payán (1887) and Rafael Núñez (1887-1888)
The first presidential term of the conservative hegemony had three different presidents, since Rafael Nuñez, who had to occupy the position, was ill.
The first, José María Campo Serrano, took office on March 30, 1886. Among his contributions, he sanctioned the new constitution and improved the lighting in the capital.
In January 1887, Campo Serrano was replaced by Eliseo Payán, then governor of Cauca. His term lasted only a few months, as conservatives disliked his decisions. Therefore, the president decreed freedom of the press and attempted to negotiate with radical liberals. The latter led to his resignation in June of that year.
Rafael Núñez was then able to assume the presidency. The Regeneration ideologue negotiated a concordat with the Vatican that restored to the Church all the power it had lost during the Liberal administration.
Carlos Holguin Mallarino (1888-1892)
Núñez's illness forced him to resign as president again in December 1888. Congress elected Carlos Holguín Mallarino as his replacement. His term was characterized by the construction of new infrastructure, including Bogotá's first military hospital. He also founded the National Police.
Miguel Antonio Caro (1892-1898)
The 1892 elections were won, once again, by Rafael Núñez. However, his illness led his vice president, Miguel Antonio Caro, to assume the presidency.
Political instability led Caro to ask Núñez to assume power, but he died on September 18, 1894. The following year, a revolution organized by liberals was suppressed by General Rafael Reyes.
Manuel Antonio Sanclemente (1898-1900) and José Manuel Marroquín (1900-1904)
Miguel Antonio Caro appointed Manuel Antonio Sanclemente, who was over 80 at the time, as his successor. His vice president was José Manuel Marroquín, also very old. The goal of this appointment was to continue exercising power in the shadows, but without attaining it.
Sanclemente faced strong opposition from both the Liberals and the traditional Conservative Party, led by his own vice president. This resulted in the outbreak of the Thousand Days' War in 1899, a conflict that pitted the Liberals against the government.
Mallorquin, encouraged by his own conservatives, overthrew Sanclemente in a coup in July 1900. The war continued during his term and there was a separation of Panama.
Rafael Reyes (1904-1909) and Ramón González Valencia (1909-1910)
The conservative victory in the Thousand Days' War led many conservatives to oppose any agreement with the liberals. However, upon becoming president, Rafael Reyes allowed some members of that party to join his government.
Colombia was in a very delicate situation. The war had devastated the country, and the separation from Panama worsened the economic situation. Reyes attempted to boost the economy by supporting the establishment of new industries. He also enacted a series of progressive measures.
This provoked rejection from many of his conservative colleagues. To avoid this opposition, Reyes became more authoritarian. Eventually, he banned his rivals, closed Congress, and formed a Constituent Assembly.
The president suffered an assassination attempt and, despite having sufficient popular support, decided to hand over power to Jorge Holguín Mallarino in June 1909. Once the resignation was formalized, Congress appointed Ramón González Valencia as the new president for the remainder of the presidential term.
Carlos Eugenio Restrepo (1910-1914)
Restrepo became president with the support of both Colombian political parties: the Conservative and the Liberal. Upon taking office, the economy was in a very delicate situation, mainly due to the fiscal deficit.
The president raised taxes and cut all expenses, measures that enabled him to achieve a surplus in just one year. Furthermore, he doubled exports.
On the other hand, Restrepo's government clashed with the Church in an attempt to prevent its interference. The president was a champion of freedom of religion, the press, and expression.
José Vicente Concha (1914-1918)
After being defeated by Restrepo in 1910, José Vicente Concha managed to become president in 1914.
Marco Fidel Suarez (1918-1922)
Conservatives nominated Marcos Fidel Suárez as their presidential candidate in 1917. After winning the election, the president founded SCADTA, the country's first aviation company.
Pedro Nel Ospina (1922-1926)
Nel Ospina's presidential term benefited from the US payment of $25 million in compensation for the loss of the Panama Canal. With this money, the government heavily promoted infrastructure.
In addition to this investment in public works, Nel Ospina paid close attention to education. In this area, he passed numerous laws, albeit without Congressional support. The reason for this rejection was the president's decision to strip the Church of its power in public education.
Miguel Abadía Méndez (1926-1930)
The last president of the conservative hegemony took office after the elections in which he was the only candidate.
Abadía Méndez focused part of his term on improving international relations. To this end, he reached agreements with several neighboring countries to end border conflicts.
However, his presidential term went down in history as a fatal event: the Bananeras Massacre.
References
- National Library of Colombia. Conservative Hegemony. Retrieved from BibliotecaNational.gov.co
- Restrepo, Giovanni. February 9, 1930: The End of Hegemony. Retrieved from week.com
- Colombia.com. Presidents of Colombia. Retrieved from colombia.com
- Robert Louis Gilmore, William Paul McGreevey. Colombia. Retrieved from britannica.com
- Global Security. The Decline of Conservative Hegemony. Retrieved from globalsecurity.org
- Hutber, Jenna. Conservative Party. Retrieved from colombiareports.com