- Ukuthuthukiswa kwamadolobha azimele anezomnotho ezisekelwe ekuhwebeni olwandle kanye ne-iron metallurgy.
- Isakhiwo senhlalo esithuthukayo esigcizelela inkululeko kanye nethonya labesifazane empilweni yomphakathi.
- Ifa eliqinile lenkolo nezakhiwo elaliyisisekelo samasiko aseRoma Yasendulo.
Esikhathini eside ngaphambi kokuba iRoma ibe yinkosi yezwe lasendulo, kwakukhona enkabeni yeNhlonhlo yase-Italy abantu abahlakaniphile, abayimfihlakalo, nabachuma kakhulu: ama- Etruscans . Izakhamuzi zesifunda esisazi manje ngokuthi iTuscany, iLazio, ne-Umbria, zakha inethiwekhi yamadolobha aphilayo ayebusa imizila yokuhweba yaseMedithera, ehlanganisa amathonya aseMpumalanga nemvelo yawo yokuqala. Le mpucuko yayingeyona nje isiqalo soMbuso WaseRoma, kodwa yayiyindawo enamandla yamasiko eyashiya amamaki ajulile kwezobuciko, ubunjiniyela, kanye nengokomoya lesifunda.
Okwenza ama-Etruscan abe mnandi kangaka iqiniso lokuthi umlando wawo omningi wathathwa noma wasulwa ngamabomu amaRoma, abalandela kanye nabanqobi bawo. Kodwa-ke, izindawo zokungcwaba ezigciniwe, imidwebo yamathuna aqhakazile, kanye nefa lolimi eliqhekekile kusenza sikwazi ukuhlanganisa iphazili elithakazelisayo mayelana nokuthi bangobani laba besilisa nabesifazane. Kusukela esigabeni sabo sobuntwana emasikweni aseVillanova kuya ekuguqukeni kwabo kancane kancane kweRoman, indlela yama-Etruscan iyindaba yobukhazikhazi, ukholo, kanye nokulwa nokukhohlwa.
Imvelaphi Nemfihlakalo Yobunikazi
Umbuzo wokuthi ama-Etruscan avelaphi ungomunye wempikiswano eshisa kakhulu kwezemivubukulo. Sekungamakhulu eminyaka, inkolelo-mbono kaHerodotus, inkolelo-mbono yama-Orientalist , yabusa, iphakamisa ukuthi basuka eLydia, eTurkey yanamuhla, bebalekela indlala ebhubhisayo ngaphansi kobuholi bukaTyrrhenus. Ngakolunye uhlangothi, uDionysius waseHalicarnassus wavikela i-autochthony , ethi bavela e-Italy uqobo. Izifundo zezakhi zofuzo zanamuhla zivame ukusekela umbono wokuthi babeyi-autochthony kakhulu, yize bathatha izici zamasiko ezinamandla ezivela eMpumalanga Eseduze ngenxa yokuhweba okukhulu.
Ngaphambi kokuba babe yimpucuko esiyaziyo namuhla, badlula esigabeni samasiko saseVillanova (cishe ngo-1100 BC), esaziwa ngezindawo zezolimo kanye nobuchwepheshe bokuqala bokubumba insimbi. Ngaleso sikhathi, izindlu zaziyizindlu ezilula eziyindilinga, futhi umlotha wabafileyo wawubekwa ezitsheni zobumba ezimise okwezindlu, okwembula ekuqaleni ukukhathazeka kwabo ngokuphila ngemva kokufa. Ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, lezi zindawo zahlangana emagqumeni, zakha amadolobha aqinile kanye neqembu elikhethekile lomphakathi.
Inhlangano Yezepolitiki Nezenhlalo
Ngokungafani nombuso ohlangene, i-Etruria yayakhiwe yizifundazwe ezizimele . Izikhungo ezifana neCerveteri, iTarquinia, iVeii, neVulci zazisebenza ngokuzimela, yize zazihlanganiswe ulimi nenkolo efanayo. Kwakukhona okwakuthiwa iDodecapolis , inhlangano yamadolobha ayishumi nambili eyayihlangana minyaka yonke endaweni engcwele yeFanum Voltumnae, kodwa le nyunyana yayinemicikilisho futhi ingokwenkolo kunokuba ibe yezempi noma yezombusazwe kuphela.
Isakhiwo sikahulumeni sashintsha kusukela ekubuseni okugcwele, lapho inkosi (ebizwa ngokuthi i-lucumo noma i-zilath) yayinemisebenzi yokwahlulela, yenkolo, neyezempi, kuya kuma-republic e-oligarchic alawulwa yizizwe ezicebile kakhulu. Ngokwezenhlalo, iphiramidi yayicacile: phezulu kwakukhona abanikazi bomhlaba kanye nezikhulu, kulandelwa abantu abavamile abakhululekile, abantu bakwamanye amazwe (ikakhulukazi amaGreki), kanti phansi, izigqila, ezazibonakala zinenkululeko enkulu kunakweminye imiphakathi yaseMedithera.
Indima Yoguquko Yabesifazane
Enye yezinto ezashaqisa kakhulu amaGreki namaRoma angaleso sikhathi kwakuyisimo sabesifazane base-Etruria . Nakuba kwamanye amasiko babevalelwe emakhaya, abesifazane base-Etruria babekhululwa futhi bahlanganyela ngenkuthalo empilweni yomphakathi. Babeya emadilini, bebukela imidlalo, bekwazi ukufunda, futhi benokuzimela okusemthethweni , bekwazi ukuthola ifa lempahla nokudlulisela ubuzwe kubantwana babo.
Le nkululeko yabonakala nasekuzikhukhumezeni nasekuzinakekeleni kwabo. Ukulandisa kanye nokutholakele kwezinto zakudala kubonisa ukuthi abesifazane abaphezulu babesebenzisa izimonyo eziyinkimbinkimbi, okhilimu bokuthambisa abenziwe ngofulawa webhali kanye ne-narcissus, kanye nama-kit obuhle anamakha kanye nezithunzi zamehlo ezikhishwe ku-saffron. Ukusetshenziswa kwezibuko zethusi ezicwebezelisiwe kwakuvamile, okubonisa indlela yokuphila yobukhazikhazi enakekela ubuhle.
Umnotho, Ulwandle kanye Nensimbi
Ama-Etruscans ayengoshaka bangempela bokuhweba olwandle. Besebenzisa ingcebo yamaminerali yezwe labo, ikakhulukazi insimbi nesiliva , baba ngabathumeli abakhulu bezinsimbi eMedithera. Bakha ubudlelwano namaFenike namaCarthage ukuze balwe nokwanda kwamaGreki, ekugcineni belawula izingxenye zeCorsica neSardinia. Imikhumbi yabo yayinamandla kangangokuthi amaGreki, ngokuvamile ngenxa yomona noma ukwesaba, ababiza ngokuthi amasela empi.
Ngaphezu kwezinsimbi, bakhiqiza izitsha zobumba ezidumile zeBucchero , ezazibonakala ngombala wazo omnyama kanye nokukhazimula kwensimbi, ezazilingisa izitsha zethusi. Lo mkhiqizo wathunyelwa cishe kulo lonke elaseYurophu, kusukela eGaul kuya eScandinavia, okufakazela ukuthi ithonya lama-Etruscan lasakazeka kude kakhulu nemingcele ye-Italy ephakathi.
Inkolo Nobuciko Bokungabonakali
Kuma-Etruscan, inkolo yayingeyona nje ukholo; kwakuyisayensi. Isiyalo sama-Etruscan sasiyiqoqo lezincwadi ezingcwele ezazifundisa indlela yokuhumusha intando yonkulunkulu ngezibonakaliso zemvelo. Babengochwepheshe be- haruspicy (ukufunda izibilini zezilwane, ikakhulukazi isibindi) kanye ne-ceraunomancy (isifundo sombani). Abapristi, ababaziwa ngokuthi ama-haruspices, babengabantu abanamandla amakhulu kanye nodumo.
Ithempeli lalikholelwa konkulunkulu abaningi futhi lithonywe kakhulu amaGreki, kanye nonkulunkulu abanjengoTinia (Zeus) no-Uni (Hera). Kodwa-ke, umbono wama-Etruscan ngokufa wawuhlukile. Babekholelwa ukuthi ukuphila kuyaqhubeka ekuphileni kwangemva kokufa, ngakho-ke bakha izindawo zokungcwaba ezinkulu ezazilingisa amadolobha abaphilayo. Amathuna ayehlotshiswe ngemidwebo eveza amadili, imidanso, kanye nezigcawu zokuzingela, eguqula ithuna libe yindawo yokugubha hhayi nje ukulila.
Izakhiwo kanye Nefa Lobuciko
Ekwakhiweni, ama-Etruscan ayenezindlela ezintsha. Aletha i- semicircular arch , i-barrel vault, kanye ne-dome, izinto ezazizolungiswa futhi zisetshenziswe kabanzi amaRoma emifuleni yawo yamanzi nasemabhulohweni. Amathempeli awo, nakuba ayephefumulelwe amaGreki, ayehlukile: ayenezisekelo eziphakeme (i-podia) futhi ayenziwe kakhulu ngokhuni kanye ne-terracotta, enemihlobiso ejabulisayo ophahleni.
Ekubumbeni, bavelele ngobuciko babo bemvelo, bekwazi ubuciko obunezinhlangothi ezintathu kanye nezici zabo . Ngenkathi amaGreki ebheka umfanekiso womuntu njengomuntu ofanele, ama-Etruscan ayekhetha ukumelela ubuso ngendlela engokoqobo . Imisebenzi efana ne-Chimera of Arezzo kanye ne-Sarcophagus of the Spouses ibonisa ikhono lobuchwepheshe eliyingqayizivele ekusebenzeni ngethusi kanye ne-terracotta, ibamba ingqikithi yomuntu kanye nezinganekwane ngokunemba.
Ukuvuka KweRoma Nokuwa Kwama-Etruscan
Ukuwa kwempucuko yama-Etruscan akwenzekanga ngobusuku obubodwa, kodwa kwaba inqubo yokuguguleka kancane kancane. Ngekhulu lesi-5 BC, aqala ukulahlekelwa amandla ngenxa yokuhlasela kwabantu baseCeltic abavela enyakatho kanye nokuncintisana kwezentengiselwano okuvela eSyracuse. Ukuntuleka kobunye bezepolitiki phakathi kwezifundazwe zamadolobha kwaba yingozi enkulu, okwenza kwaba lula ukunqotshwa kancane kancane yiRiphabhulikhi yaseRoma.
Ngokuthakazelisayo, iRoma yaqala njengeqembu lamadolobhana ngaphansi kwethonya lama-Etruscan. Amakhosi okuqala aseRoma ayevela kuma-Etruscan, futhi idolobha lazuza kuwo izindonga zalo zokuqala zomuzi, uhlelo lwalo lokuthuthwa kwamanzi, ngisho nezimpawu zamandla njenge- fasces kanye nesihlalo se-curule. I-toga yamaRoma, uphawu lokugcina lobuzwe, empeleni luyi-adaptation yengubo yama-Etruscan. Ngakho-ke, nakuba ayenqotshwe empini, ama-Etruscan anqoba ngokwesiko , akha isisekelo salokho okwakuzoba impucuko yamaRoma.
Imfihlakalo Yolimi
Enye yezimfihlakalo ezinkulu ezisabekela inselele ochwepheshe bezilimi ulimi lwesi-Etruscan. Aluyona ingxenye yomndeni wama-Indo-European, okwenza kube yindawo ehlukile kwezilimi esifundeni. Nakuba basebenzisa uhlobo oluhlukile lwezinhlamvu zesi- Etruscan emvelaphi yabo , okwenza ukufunda kube nokwenzeka, ukuqonda incazelo kunzima kakhulu. Iningi lemibhalo esindile yizifinyezo ezimfushane noma amafomula esivumelwano.
Kunezinye izinto ezibalulekile ezihlukile, njenge- Liber Linteus (Incwadi Yelineni), umbhalo omude kunayo yonke owaziwayo, owasinda ngendlela exakile ngoba wawusetshenziswa ukugoqa umuthi eGibhithe. Ulimi lwanyamalala kancane kancane njengoba isiLatini sithatha izintambo, kodwa lwashiya izinsalela kumagama esiRoma, ngamagama anjenge -atrium ne -fenestra , esisawasebenzisa ezilimini eziningana zanamuhla.
Umlando wama-Etruscans wembula umphakathi owawazi ukulinganisela ukholo oluyimfihlakalo nokusebenza kwezentengiselwano, wadala umhlaba lapho ubuciko bomngcwabo babuyisibuko senjabulo yokuphila nalapho abesifazane babenesikhundla esifiselekayo se-Antiquity. Kusukela ekubuseni kwabo ekubunjweni ngethusi kuya ekusungulweni kwezixazululo zokwakha ezazizosekela uMbuso WaseRoma, laba bantu bayeka ukuba yisithunzi sesikhathi esidlule futhi baba yisihluthulelo sokuqonda ukwakheka kwesiko laseNtshonalanga, okufakazela ukuthi, ngisho nalapho ulimi luthula, amatshe nemibala yamathuna kuyaqhubeka nokulandisa indaba yabantu abenqaba ukukhohlwa.