- Lolu cwaningo luhlanganisa idatha evela ku-PELA-USAL kanye ne-V-Dem ukuze kuhlaziywe ukuthi izimo zengqondo zabantu abaphezulu ephalamende zihlobana kanjani nezinhlobo ezinhlanu zentando yeningi eLatin America.
- Ukusekelwa kwentando yeningi kwabantu abaphezulu kukhuthaza kakhulu ubukhulu bokhetho, futhi kwezinye izimo, ubukhulu benkululeko, obuhleliwe, nobokulingana, kodwa akuyona njalo into edingekayo ukuze kube nentando yeningi ephelele.
- Ubandlululo lwemibono lwabantu abaphezulu, uma luhlanganiswa nomzila oqinile wentando yeningi kanye nesimo esihle senhlalo-mnotho, kungaqinisa kakhulu ubukhulu bokulingana futhi kuvule indlela yentando yeningi egcwele.
- Ukuqhathanisa phakathi kwe-Uruguay ne-El Salvador kwembula ukubaluleka kokuncika endleleni: izindlela zomlando zokusekelwa okuqhubekayo kwentando yeningi zibeka umthelela wobushiqela ekhwalithini yentando yeningi.
Ingxoxo mayelana nokuthi osopolitiki abaphezulu bayithonya kanjani ikhwalithi yentando yeningi eLatin America ithole umfutho omusha ocwaningweni oludlula ukuphikisana okuvamile phakathi kwentando yeningi kanye nobushiqela. Esikhundleni sokubheka kuphela izinguquko zombuso, ukugumbuqelwa kombuso, noma izinqubo zokuguquka, ingxenye enkulu yezincwadi zakamuva inikezelwe ekuqondeni ukuthi intando yeningi isebenza kanjani uma isimisiwe nokuthi yiziphi izici ezichaza ukuthi kungani ezinye zibandakanya kakhulu, zilingana, noma zihloselwe ukwenza izinqumo kunezinye.
Kulesi simo, umsebenzi ka-Asbel Bohigues "ngezikhundla eziphezulu, ubushiqela, kanye nentando yeningi" uvelele ngokugxila ngqo ezimweni zengqondo kanye nezindinganiso zezikhulu zephalamende laseLatin America, eveza le mibono "ngezinhlobo ezahlukene zentando yeningi." Ngokusekelwe kudatha evela ku-Latin American Elites Project (PELA-USAL) kanye nezinkomba ezivela ku-Varieties of Democracy (V-Dem), ucwaningo lubonisa, ngendlela ephikisanayo, ukuthi ubushiqela bemibono bezikhulu eziphezulu, ezimweni ezithile, bungakwazi ukuqinisa izilinganiso ezithile zentando yeningi , ikakhulukazi ubukhulu bokulingana, uma buhlanganiswa nokusekelwa kwezikhungo zentando yeningi.
Izindlela ezimbili kwezesayensi yezepolitiki: ukuqhekeka kwentando yeningi kanye nekhwalithi yentando yeningi.
Izincwadi zakudala mayelana nokubusa ngentando yeningi eLatin America naseNingizimu Yurophu zigcizelele kakhulu izikhathi zenhlekelele : ukuwa kombuso, ukuguquka kusuka ebushiqela kuya entandweni yeningi, kanye nezinqubo zokuhlanganiswa kwentando yeningi. Ababhali abanjengoJuan J. Linz no-Alfred Stepan, ikakhulukazi emisebenzini efana nethi "The Breakdown of Democratic Regimes" (1978) kanye nethi "Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation" (1996), babebalulekile ekuchazeni ukuthi ukukhetha okunesu kwabantu abaphezulu kwaba negalelo kanjani ekuvuleni imibuso, ekuxoxisaneni ngezivumelwano, nasekulondolozeni noma ekubhubhiseni izilinganiso zentando yeningi.
Ngokufanayo, umsebenzi ohlelwe nguGuillermo O'Donnell, uPhilippe Schmitter, noLaurence Whitehead, i-"Transitions from Authoritarian Rule" (1986) , wahlanganisa indlela lapho izinhlangano zezepolitiki—okungukuthi, izinqumo zabaholi namaqembu anamandla—zibonakala njengesici esibalulekile ekuqondeni igagasi lesithathu lentando yeningi. Ngale ndlela, ucwaningo lukaHigley noGunther (1992) mayelana nezikhulu kanye nokuhlanganiswa kwentando yeningi eLatin America naseNingizimu Yurophu luphinde luqinise umqondo wokuthi izimo zengqondo, izivumelwano, kanye nezingxabano phakathi kwamaqembu abusayo zakha isiphetho semibuso.
Ngawo-1990 nawo-2000, ukugxila kwanda ukuze kucatshangelwe ukuzinza kwemibuso yentando yeningi kanye nezingozi zayo . ULinz (1990), lapho exoxa "ngezingozi zobumongameli," waxwayisa ngokuthi kungenzeka ukuthi ukwakheka kwezikhungo kungakhuthaza izinkinga eziphindaphindayo ngisho nokubuyela kwezempi endaweni yezepolitiki. URemmer (1996), naye, wahlaziya ukusimama kwentando yeningi yaseNingizimu Melika , ehlobene nokusebenza kwezikhungo, izimo zenhlalo nezomnotho, kanye nokusekelwa kwezepolitiki.
Kamuva, uScott Mainwaring no-Aníbal Pérez-Liñán bajulisa ukuhlaziywa okuqhathanisayo kwemibuso yentando yeningi kanye nemibuso yobushiqela esifundeni , emisebenzini efana nethi “Democracies and Dictatorships in Latin America: Emergence, Survival, and Fall” (2013/2014). Babonise ukuthi izici zezikhungo, isakhiwo seqembu, ukusebenza komnotho, kanye nokuziphatha kwabantu abaphezulu kuhlangana kanjani ukuchaza ukuvela, ukusinda, kanye nokuwa kwemibuso ngokuhamba kwesikhathi.
Ngesikhathi esifanayo, ingxenye enkulu yezincwadi yaqala ukungabaza umqondo wentando yeningi njengesigaba esiphindwe kabili . Ababhali abanjengo-O'Donnell (1994), lapho bethula umqondo "wentando yeningi yokudlulisela," badonsela ukunaka ezinhlelweni ezazisebenza ngemikhuba egxile egatsheni Eliphezulu , izinga eliphansi lokumelwa, kanye nokulawulwa okubuthakathaka kwezikhungo. Ngakho-ke, kwavulwa isikhala sezifundo ezikhuluma "ngezinhlobonhlobo zentando yeningi" kanye nezilinganiso ezahlukene zentando yeningi - ezidlula umehluko olula phakathi kwentando yeningi kanye nobushiqela.
Izinhlobo zentando yeningi: ngale kuka-yebo noma cha
Esikhundleni sokubuza nje ukuthi izwe liyintando yeningi yini, izinhlobo zendlela yentando yeningi zifuna ukuqonda ukuthi liyintando yeningi kangakanani kuzo zonke izici ezahlukene . Iphrojekthi ye-V-Dem (Izinhlobo Zentando Yeningi), echazwe kabanzi endleleni yokusebenza kaCoppedge, Gerring, Knutsen, Lindberg, Teorell, kanye nozakwabo (2021), ilinganisa intando yeningi ngokusekelwe ezingxenyeni eziningana, okuhlanganisa: ukhetho, inkululeko, ukuhlanganyela, okuhlosiwe, kanye nokulingana.
Uhlangothi lokhetho lugcizelela ukuba khona kokhetho oluncintisanayo, oluhlanzekile, noluhlala lukhona , lapho izakhamuzi zingakhetha khona phakathi kwezinye izindlela zangempela futhi amavoti abalwa ngendlela engalingani. Ngaphandle kwalesi sigaba, ukukhuluma ngentando yeningi kuba yinto engenakwenzeka, njengoba ilungelo lokuvota liyindlela eyinhloko yokukhetha ababusi emibusweni emele.
Uhlangothi lwenkululeko lugxile ekuhlolweni nasekulinganisweni kanye nokuvikelwa kwenkululeko yomphakathi . Luhilela ukuzimela kwezomthetho, ukwengamela kwegatsha eliphezulu kwezomthetho, abezindaba abakhululekile, kanye nokuvikelwa kwamalungelo ayisisekelo. Ngisho noma izwe libamba ukhetho oluvamile, uma kukhona ukuqongelela okukhulu kwamandla noma ukwephulwa kwamalungelo okuhlelekile, ikhwalithi yenkululeko yentando yeningi iphansi.
Ububanzi bokubamba iqhaza buhlola ukubandakanyeka kwezakhamuzi ngale kokuvota : ukubamba iqhaza ezinhlanganweni, ukugqugquzela, ukubonisana nomphakathi, kanye nezimo zentando yeningi eqondile. Lapha, kubalulekile ukuqonda izinga umphakathi ongathonya ngalo uhlelo lwezepolitiki kanye nenqubo yokwenza izinqumo ngemigudu ebanzi kunebhokisi lokuvota nje kuphela.
Uhlangothi oludingidwayo luphathelene nendlela izinqumo ezihlangene ezenziwa ngayo . Umbuzo oyinhloko ukuthi izikhungo zezombusazwe zikhetha izingxoxo zomphakathi ezinesisekelo esihle, ezivulekile, nezinenhlonipho , lapho kuvezwa khona izimpikiswano, zivunyelwe, futhi kuxoxwe ngazo, noma ukuthi ukucabanga kokufaka umthetho kuyaphumelela yini, ngaphandle kwengxoxo ejulile.
Okokugcina, ubukhulu bokulingana buphathelene nokusatshalaliswa kwamandla nezinsizakusebenza . Akwanele ukuba namalungelo ephepheni: kubalulekile ukuqinisekisa ukuthi kukhona ukulingana kwangempela ekufinyeleleni ekuhlanganyeleni kwezepolitiki, ubulungiswa, imfundo, impilo, kanye nokuvikelwa komphakathi. Intando yeningi egxilisa amandla nengcebo emaqenjini ambalwa ivame ukuthola amaphuzu amabi kulesi sigaba, noma ngabe ihlangabezana nezidingo eziyisisekelo zokhetho.
Umqondo "wentando yeningi egcwele" owamukelwa nguBohigues ubhekisela ngqo emibusweni ebonisa amazinga aphezulu kuzo zonke lezi zigaba ezinhlanu . Ngamanye amazwi, akuyona nje intando yeningi "encane" esekelwe okhethweni oluncintisanayo, kodwa uhlelo lwezepolitiki oluhlanganisa ubuqotho bokhetho, inhlonipho yamalungelo, ukubamba iqhaza okuphezulu kwezakhamuzi, izinqubo eziqinile zokuxoxisana, kanye nengxenye eqinile yokulingana.
Izikhulu zezombusazwe njengesihluthulelo sencazelo
Ingxoxo enkulu mayelana nekhwalithi yentando yeningi igxile emibonweni yomphakathi jikelele , ilinganisa, isibonelo, ukusekelwa kwezakhamuzi ngentando yeningi noma ukwethemba izikhungo. Kodwa-ke, ucwaningo lukaBohigues ludonsela ukunaka ephuzwini elivame ukunganakwa: izimo zengqondo zabantu abaphezulu kwezepolitiki zingaba nomthelela oqondile "emithethweni yomdlalo" nokuthi leyo mithetho ishintshwa kanjani, ilondolozwe, noma ihlanekezelwe kanjani.
Ukulandela uhlu lwababhali abafana no-Anduiza Perea (1999), abaqokomisa ikhono labezombusazwe lokuthonya kakhulu izikhungo , lolu cwaningo luqala kusukela embonweni wokuthi ukwazi ukuthi amalungu ephalamende acabangani nokuthi yini abayazisayo kubalulekile . Uma abantu abaphezulu besekela intando yeningi kuphela, ukuze kube lula, noma uma bedlala ngezixazululo zobushiqela, lokhu kuvame ukuthinta ukuzinza kanye nekhwalithi yombuso.
Lolu cwaningo luncike ezicini ezimbili eziyinhloko ukuze kulinganiswe imibono yabantu abaphezulu : ukusekelwa kwentando yeningi kanye nobandlululo olusekelwe emibonweni. Ukusekelwa kwentando yeningi kuqondwa kakhulu ngezimo zengqondo ezisekela ukhetho kanye namaqembu ezepolitiki , okubhekwa njengezinsika eziyisisekelo zezikhungo. Ubandlululo olusekelwe emibonweni lulinganiswa ngezikhundla eziqine kakhulu ezithathwa yiphalamende esikalini semibono esisekelwe kwesobunxele kuya kwesokudla.
Esikhundleni sokuphatha ubu-radicalism njengento engalungile ngokuzenzakalelayo, lolu cwaningo luhlukanisa phakathi kobu-radicalism obumelene nentando yeningi kanye "nobu-radicalism bentando yeningi ." Lokhu kokugcina kubhekisela kubantu abaphezulu abanezikhundla eziqine kakhulu ngokombono kodwa, ngesikhathi esifanayo, abasekela ngokusobala intando yeningi, ukhetho, kanye nohlelo lweqembu . Inkolelo-mbono eyinhloko ukuthi lolu hlobo lobu-radicalism, ezimweni ezithile, lungasiza kahle ezinhlotsheni ezithile zentando yeningi.
Lokhu kumelela ukuphikisana nokuhumusha kwendabuko, njengalokho kukaMainwaring noPérez-Liñán , abavame ukuhlobanisa ukuhlukana okukhulu kwemibono nokungazinzi kwentando yeningi . Isiphakamiso sikaBohigues sithi, njengoba intando yeningi "iwukuphela komdlalo edolobheni," ukucaca kwezinhlelo - okuvame ukuhlotshaniswa nezikhundla eziqinile zemibono - kungaqinisa impikiswano yomphakathi, ukumelwa, futhi, kwezinye izimo, ngisho nobukhulu bokulingana kwemibuso.
I-PELA-USAL kanye ne-V-Dem: izizindalwazi zokuqonda izifundiswa kanye nomongo.
Ukuze kuhlolwe le mibono, lolu cwaningo lusebenzisa izizindalwazi ezimbili ezinkulu , ezihlanganisiwe, ezinikeza isithombe esiphelele sobudlelwano phakathi kwezikhulu kanye nentando yeningi eLatin America phakathi kuka-1995 no-2015.
Ngakolunye uhlangothi, i-Latin American Elites Project (PELA-USAL) eNyuvesi yaseSalamanca yakha indawo yokubuka izikhulu zephalamende, kusukela ekuqaleni kwawo-1990, ezixoxisane namasekela namaseneta avela cishe kuwo wonke amazwe aseLatin America . Eminyakeni engaphezu kwamashumi amabili, kwaqoqwa izingxoxo ezingaphezu kuka-8.000 emazweni angu-18, ezihlanganisa izishayamthetho ezingu-95 (noma inhlanganisela yonyaka wezwe). Lokhu kwaziswa kwembula, ngemininingwane eminingi, izikhundla zemibono, imibono yezikhungo, kanye nezindinganiso zentando yeningi zezikhulu zephalamende.
Ngakolunye uhlangothi, i-V-Dem inikeza izinkomba eziningiliziwe zomongo ngezici eziningi zentando yeningi emazweni afanayo kanye nesikhathi esifanayo. Indlela eyethulwe nguCoppedge kanye nozakwabo (2021) ichaza ngokuhlelekile ukuthi izinkomba zokhetho, zenkululeko, zokubamba iqhaza, ezidingidwayo, kanye nezokulingana zakhiwa kanjani , ngokusekelwe kudathabheyisi enkulu kanye nokuhlolwa kochwepheshe.
Ngaphezu kwalokho, lolu cwaningo lusebenzisana neminye imithombo yedatha yomongo , njengeLatinobarómetro kanye neBhange Lomhlaba, ukuze kuthathwe izimo zenhlalo-mnotho, indlela yentando yeningi, kanye nezici zesiko lezepolitiki . Ngokubambisana, lezi zingosi zedatha zisivumela ukuthi sihlaziye izinga lapho izici ezifana nentuthuko yezomnotho, umlando wentando yeningi, izikhungo, kanye neziguquguquko zezwe ziguqula khona umthelela wemibono yabantu abaphezulu ezinhlotsheni ezahlukene zentando yeningi.
Lokhu kuphumela kumodeli enezigaba ezimbili : okokuqala, umongo (wezomnotho, wezikhungo, wamasiko, nowomlando) ubumba izimo zengqondo zabantu abaphezulu kwezepolitiki; bese kuthi, lezi zimo zengqondo zithonye, ngendlela ehlukile, ngayinye yezici ezinhlanu zentando yeningi . Akucatshangwa ukuthi zonke izici zihamba ndawonye: zingasabela ezinhlanganisweni ezihlukile zezici, kufaka phakathi ezingase ziphikisane.
Indlela yokusebenzisa izindlela eziningi: i-HJ-Biplot, i-QCA, kanye nokulandelela izinqubo
Ukuze ahlole imibono yakhe, uBohigues usebenzisa isu lezindlela ezixubile elihlanganisa amasu okulinganisa kanye nokuhlola . Umqondo uwukusebenzisa okungcono kakhulu kwendlela ngayinye, eqaphela ukuthi akukho neyodwa kuzo evumela ukusungula imbangela eqinile, kodwa unxantathu uqinisa ukuqina kokuxhumana kanye nezindlela eziphakanyisiwe.
Okokuqala, umbhali usebenzisa i-HJ-Biplot njengethuluzi lokuhlaziya elisebenzisa izindlela eziningi ukuhlola ubudlelwano phakathi kwezimo zengqondo zabantu abaphezulu (ukusekela intando yeningi kanye nobandlululo) kanye nezinkomba zezinhlobo ezahlukene zentando yeningi. I-HJ-Biplot ivumela ukubona ngeso lengqondo ukuthi amazwe neziguquguquko zisatshalaliswa kanjani endaweni efanayo yesithombe , okwenza kube lula ukuhlonza amaphethini, izinhlangano, kanye nokuhwebelana okungenzeka phakathi kobukhulu bentando yeningi.
Okwesibili, i-Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA) enama-fuzzy sets (fsQCA) isetshenziselwa ukuphenya ukuthi yiziphi izinhlanganisela zezimo ezanele ukukhiqiza "intando yeningi egcwele" . Le ndlela, esetshenziswa kabanzi ezifundweni zokuqhathanisa, isebenza nge-sectoral logic (amasethi) futhi igxile ekumisweni kwezimbangela, kunemiphumela ehlukanisiwe. Ngakho-ke, kungenzeka ukuhlonza, isibonelo, amalungiselelo omongo kanye nezimo zengqondo eziphezulu, ezihlangene, ezihlotshaniswa namazinga aphezulu kuzo zonke izilinganiso zentando yeningi.
Okokugcina, ucwaningo lusebenzisa ukulandelana kwenqubo yokuqhathanisa ukuhlaziya ngokujulile izimo ezimbili eziphathelene nombono: i-Uruguay ne-El Salvador . Zombili ziveza abantu abaphezulu abanezimpawu ezifanayo ngokwe-radicalism kanye nokusekela intando yeningi, kodwa zibonisa imiphumela ehlukene mayelana nokuba khona kwentando yeningi egcwele. Inhloso ukulandelela izindlela zembangela ngokuhamba kwesikhathi , ukuqinisekisa ukuthi indlela yentando yeningi (ukuncika endleleni) iwubeka kanjani umthelela we-radicalism kanye nokusekelwa kwabantu abaphezulu.
Ukusetshenziswa okuhlangene kwala mathuluzi okusebenza kuwusizo ikakhulukazi kubafundi nakubacwaningi bamazwe athile . Ezifundweni eziningi zokuqhathanisa, amazwe agcina encishisiwe abe yiziguquguquko ezimbili, ngolwazi oluncane oluphathelene nomongo. Lapha, ngokuphambene nalokho, kukhona umzamo ocacile wokwakha kabusha umongo wezepolitiki wecala ngalinye , okwenza incwadi ibe usizo kokubili ekuhlaziyeni kwesifunda kanye nasezifundweni ezigxile, isibonelo, e-Uruguay, eCosta Rica, noma e-El Salvador.
Imiphumela ebalulekile: ukwesekwa, ubushiqela, kanye nezinhlobonhlobo zentando yeningi
Esahlukweni esizinikele ethonyeni lama-elite ezinhlotsheni ezahlukene zentando yeningi , ucwaningo luhlola umbono wokuthi ukusekelwa kwentando yeningi kanye nobandlululo lwama-elite kunemiphumela ehlukile - futhi ngezinye izikhathi ephambene - kuhlangothi ngalunye . Imiphumela yobufakazi etholwe nge-HJ-Biplot iyaveza.
Umbono wokuqala ulula kakhulu : lapho ukusekelwa okukhulu kwentando yeningi yizicukuthwane, kulapho ukusebenza kwamazwe ngezinga elifana nokhetho, futhi kwezinye izimo, ngokwenkululeko, ngokwengxoxo, nangokulingana . Izicukuthwane ezivikela kakhulu ukhetho kanye namaqembu zivame ukuqinisa kokubili ubuqotho benqubo yokhetho kanye nendawo yengxoxo nokufakwa.
Nokho, umphumela wobushiqela ubonakala uyinkimbinkimbi kakhulu . Kwezinye izimo, kuyabonakala ukuthi lapho abantu abaphezulu bezwe benobushiqela, kulapho ubukhulu bokulingana kwentando yeningi buvame ukuba phezulu , noma ngabe lokhu kungahambisana namazinga aphansi ezicini zokhetho, zenkululeko, noma ezidingidwayo. Lokhu kuhlangana kusikisela ukuthi izikhundla zemibono eziqine kakhulu zingacindezela izinqubomgomo zokwabiwa kabusha kanye nokunciphisa ukungalingani , noma ngabe zidala ukungezwani neminye imithetho nemikhuba yezikhungo.
Enye yezinto ezitholwe ezithakazelisayo kakhulu ukuthi ukusekelwa kwentando yeningi akuyona ngempela into ebalulekile ukuze kube khona intando yeningi egcwele lapho kuhlaziywa ukwakheka kwezici nge-fsQCA. Okungenani enhlanganisweni eyodwa ekhonjiwe, kungenzeka ukuthola intando yeningi ephelele ngaphandle kokusekelwa yizicukuthwane ukuze intando yeningi ibaluleke ngokusobala , okubonisa ukuthi izimo ezinhle zesakhiwo kanye nezikhungo zinganciphisa kancane ukungafani kwezicukuthwane ezithile.
Ngesikhathi esifanayo, imiphumela ikhombisa ukuthi ubandlululo, uma lusebenzisana nezinye izinto eziguquguqukayo, lungadala izimo ezanele zokuba khona kwentando yeningi egcwele . Ngamanye amazwi, ubandlululo alugcini nje ngokuba yingozi ngokungenakugwenywa, kodwa lungaba yingxenye ebalulekile ezindleleni ezithile zokuqiniswa kwentando yeningi , ikakhulukazi uma luhlanganiswa nomzila wentando yeningi ohlanganisiwe kanye nezimo ezinhle zezenhlalo nezomnotho.
Indlela yentando yeningi eguquguqukayo: i-Uruguay x i-El Salvador
Ukuze siqonde kangcono izindlela ezingemuva kwalokhu okubizwa ngokuthi "indlela yentando yeningi ," lolu cwaningo luqhathanisa amacala amabili nabantu abaphezulu abafanayo ngokwemibono yobushiqela kanye, ngezinga elithile, nokusekela intando yeningi: i-Uruguay ne-El Salvador . Umbuzo oyinhloko ukuchaza ukuthi kungani eyangaphambili ifinyelela amazinga entando yeningi egcwele, kuyilapho eyakamuva ingafinyeleli, naphezu kokwabelana ngezimo, ngokombono, okufanele ziholele emiphumeleni efanayo.
Inqubo yokuqhathanisa ikhomba ukubaluleka okubalulekile kwendlela yentando yeningi . Endabeni yase-Uruguay, izikhulu zezombusazwe ziye zasekela intando yeningi njalo ngokuhamba kwesikhathi , ngisho noma ziphethe izikhundla eziqinile zemibono. Lokhu kuye kwavumela amaqembu nabaholi ukuthi bafunde, ngokomlando, "ukudlala umdlalo wentando yeningi," bakhe imikhuba yokuncintisana okuhleliwe, ukuhlonipha imithetho, kanye nokushintshana kwamandla ngokuthula.
Ngakolunye uhlangothi, e-El Salvador, ukusekelwa okugcwele kwentando yeningi kuyinto esanda kwenzeka . Ifa lezingxabano ezihlomile, ukwahlukana okunobudlova, kanye nobuthakathaka bezikhungo kuye kwavimbela ukuhlanganiswa kwesivumelwano esinamandla mayelana nemithetho yentando yeningi. Nakuba kukhona ubandlululo lwemibono, ukuhlanganiswa nomzila omfushane wokusekelwa kwentando yeningi kusho ukuthi umphumela uhlukile, hhayi ukuhumusha intando yeningi ephelele.
Lokhu kungafani kugqamisa umqondo wokuthembela endleleni : izinto ezidlule zibalulekile kakhulu. Abantu abaphezulu abaye bahlangana ngokomlando ezimweni zokuhlonipha izikhungo zentando yeningi bavame ukuhambisa ubushiqela ezingxabanweni zezinhlelo ezicacile nezincintisanayo, kodwa ngaphakathi kwemithetho . Kodwa-ke, ezimweni lapho ukuzibophezela kwentando yeningi sekwephuzile noma kubuthakathaka, ubushiqela bungonakala bube ukuhlukana okubhubhisayo , kuvimbele izinguquko futhi kuqede ukwethembana phakathi kwabadlali bezepolitiki.
Le ngxoxo ixhumeka ngokuthakazelisayo nombiko odumile wango-1950 we-American Political Science Association mayelana nohlelo lwamaqembu amabili olunomthwalo wemfanelo e-United States. Ngaleso sikhathi, kwaphikiswana ngokuthi amaqembu ahlukene ngokwemibono angasiza abavoti ukuba bakhethe ezinye izindlela ezicacile. Kodwa-ke, okuhlangenwe nakho okulandelayo ngokwahlukana okukhulu e-US kukhombisile ukuthi umehluko omkhulu ungalimaza ingxoxo nokubambisana . Ucwaningo lukaBohigues lusikisela ukuthi, ezinhlelweni zamaqembu ezibuthakathaka njengalezo eziseLatin America, izinga elithile lobandlululo lwezinhlelo lisengaba nenzuzo , uma nje lisekelwe ekusekelweni okungenakuphikiswa kwentando yeningi.
Ukubaluleka kwesifundo ngokwemfundiso kanye nobufakazi
Omunye weminikelo emikhulu yalo msebenzi usekuhlukaneni nombono wentando yeningi ohlukile . Esikhundleni sokuzikhawulela ekubuzeni ukuthi izwe liyintando yeningi noma cha, umbhali usebenza nomqondo wentando yeningi njengento enezici eziningi futhi esezingeni eliphezulu , ezivumelanisa nemibono yakamuva yezifundo zokuqhathanisa kanye ne-V-Dem uqobo.
Esinye isici esihle ukugcwalisa igebe elibalulekile ezincwadini mayelana nezimo zengqondo zabantu abaphezulu kwezepolitiki . Ngenkathi izinhlolovo zemibono yomphakathi mayelana nokusekelwa kwentando yeningi zanda, ubufakazi obuhlelekile bobufakazi ngalokho abantu abaphezulu abakucabangayo babuncane kakhulu . Ukusetshenziswa kabanzi kwedatha ye-PELA-USAL kusiza ukulungisa lokhu kungalingani, okusondeza ukuhlaziywa kubalingisi abanekhono langempela lokuchaza kabusha izikhungo nezinqubomgomo.
Ngokombono obalulekile, okutholakele okuphikisanayo ngendima enhle yabaholi abanamandla ezimweni ezithile kubaluleke kakhulu engxoxweni yanamuhla mayelana nokwahlukana. Izifundo eziningi zivame ukuphatha ukwahlukana kwemibono njengento engalungile njalo ezinhlelweni zamaqembu aseLatin America, zikuhlanganisa nokuvalwa kwemithetho, izinkinga zokubusa, kanye nokuguguleka kwentando yeningi . Nokho, ucwaningo lukaBohigues lubonisa ukuthi kuyadingeka ukuhlukanisa phakathi kobandlululo oluphikisana nentando yeningi kanye nobandlululo lwentando yeningi , okungandisa ububanzi beziphakamiso futhi kujulise ingxoxo ngokulingana.
Ekugcineni, ngokuxhumana nababhali bakudala abanjengoLinz, Stepan, O'Donnell, Schmitter, Whitehead, Higley, Gunther, Mainwaring, kanye noPérez-Liñán , lolu cwaningo luhambisana nesiko elihlanganisiwe, kodwa ludlulela ngale kokugcizelela ukuhlukana, ukuguquka, kanye nokuhlanganiswa . Ngamazwi abo, ngemva kokuba izwe lifinyelele okungenani ukuze libhekwe njengelentando yeningi, "impilo kanye nentando yeningi kuyaqhubeka," futhi kungokulo suku nosuku lapho kunqunywa khona ukuthi intando yeningi izoba ebandakanyayo, ehlanganyelayo, enenjongo, futhi elinganayo kangakanani.
Lonke lobu bufakazi kanye nokuzindla kusiza ukuqonda kangcono ukuthi kungani, eLatin America , imibuso yentando yeningi ebelana ngamalebula afanayo ingasebenza ngezindlela ezihlukene kangaka . Ngokugxila kubantu abaphezulu, izimo zabo zengqondo kanye nobandlululo lwabo, engxoxweni nezimo zomlando nezezikhungo, umsebenzi unikeza imephu ecebile yamathuba kanye nemikhawulo yentando yeningi esifundeni , okubonisa ukuthi, ngaphansi kwezimo ezithile, ngisho nokweqisa kwemibono kungasebenza njengezindlela zokujulisa intando yeningi, kunokuba kube yizinsongo ezingenakugwenywa ekusindeni kwayo.
