- Ibhayoloji yesimanje ivela emasikweni amade ahlanganisa izazi zefilosofi, odokotela, kanye nezazi zemvelo zasendulo, izwe lamaSulumane, kanye neRenaissance.
- Abantu abanjengo-Aristotle, uGalen, uLinnaeus, uDarwin noMendel bakha izinsika zomqondo ezifana nokuhlukaniswa, ukwakheka komzimba, ukuziphendukela kwemvelo, kanye nofuzo.
- Ekhulwini lama-20, i-molecular biology, i-genetics, kanye ne-genomics, enamagama anjengoHood, uNüsslein-Volhard, uVenter, uEvans, uSzostak, noBrenner, yachaza kabusha isifundo sokuphila ezingeni lamaseli kanye nelama-molecule.
- Namuhla, ubuchwepheshe obufana nokulandelana, i-CRISPR, i-biophysics, kanye ne-virtual reality kwandisa ukufinyelela kwe-biology, okugcina isiko locwaningo oluqalwe ngabanduleli balo liphila.
Ilukuluku labantu ngokuphila liye lahambisana nezinhlobo zethu kudala ngaphambi kokuba igama elithi "biology" libe khona. Izazi zefilosofi, odokotela, izazi zemvelo, kanye nezazi zebhayoloji ezingochwepheshe kamuva, bahlanganisa iphazili enkulu: ukusebenza kwezinto eziphilayo, imvelaphi yazo, ukuhlukahluka kwazo, kanye nemithetho elawula ufuzo kanye nokuziphendukela kwemvelo. Namuhla sikhuluma ngebhayoloji yesimanje, i-genome, i-biotechnology, kanye nokuhlela izakhi zofuzo, kodwa konke lokhu kwakungenzeka kuphela ngenxa yochungechunge olude lokutholakele, izingxoxo, ngisho nezingxabano nenkolo kanye nombono womhlaba oyinhloko wenkathi ngayinye.
Uma umuntu ezama ukukhumbula igama lesazi sezinto eziphilayo esidumile, uDarwin cishe uhlala efika kuqala, kodwa indaba ibanzi kakhulu kunososayensi oyedwa ohlakaniphile. Eceleni kwakhe sithola izazi zemvelo zasendulo, izindela zibala uphizi ezingadini zezindela, odokotela abafaka idumela labo engozini ukuze bahlukanise izilwane, izazi zefilosofi ezizama ukuhlukanisa konke okunyakazayo (nakho konke okungahambanga), kanye nabacwaningi besimanje abathola i-DNA, ukusebenza kwamaseli, kanye nemvelaphi yokuphila. Lesi sihloko sithatha uhambo oluningiliziwe lwalezi zinto ezandulela isayensi yezinto eziphilayo zanamuhla, kusukela ezimpandeni zazo ezindala kakhulu kuya eminikelweni yazo yakamuva.
Imvelaphi Yasendulo: Ifilosofi Yemvelo kanye Nemithi Yasendulo
Ngaphambi kokuba kube khona isayensi yebhayoloji njengesayensi ezimele, ukutadisha impilo kwakuhlobene nefilosofi, inkolo, kanye nemithi yendabuko. Imiphakathi yasendulo yayizibuza ukuthi kungani abantu begula, ukuthi izitshalo zikhula kanjani, ukuthi izilwane zizalana kanjani, noma ukuthi amanxeba aphulukiswa kanjani. Izimpendulo zale mibuzo zazivame ukuvela ezinganekwaneni, kodwa futhi nasekuqapheleni ngokucophelela, okwakuzosebenza kamuva njengesisekelo sokucabanga okwengeziwe kwesayensi.
E-India yasendulo, abacabangi abanjengoSusruta, ababesebenza cishe ngekhulu lesi-3 BC, babeyisisekelo ekuthuthukisweni kwezokwelapha kanye nokwakheka komzimba. Encwadini yakhe yakudala ethi "Sushruta Samhita," uchaze izinqubo zokuhlinzwa, amasu okuhlukanisa, kanye nokubona ngomzimba womuntu okwembula ulwazi oluwusizo oluphawulekayo. Nakuba indlela yakhe yayifakwe ngaphakathi kohlaka lwayo lwefilosofi nolwenkolo, izincazelo zakhe zomzimba nezokuhlinzwa zibikezela ukunakekelwa okuningi okuhlelekile komzimba okwakuzoba yinto evamile kamuva kwibhayoloji kanye nezokwelapha.
EShayina yasendulo, odokotela abanjengoZhang Zhong Jing (150-209 AD) nabo banegalelo ekuqondeni impilo nezifo ngendlela ehlelekile. Ehlanganiswe nesiko lezokwelapha elidala iminyaka eyinkulungwane, wagcizelela ukubaluleka kokubuka emtholampilo kanye nokuhlolwa kokwelapha. Ngisho nangaphandle kokuhlukanisa i-physiology, i-pharmacology, kanye ne-biology yamaseli njengoba senza namuhla, lezi zikole zase-Asia zakha ulwazi olwasiza ekuhlanganiseni umqondo wokuthi ukuphila kungafundwa ngezimbangela zemvelo hhayi ezingokomoya kuphela.
Ezweni lamaGreki, isayensi yezinto eziphilayo yavela njengengxenye yalokho okwakubizwa ngokuthi "ifilosofi yemvelo," lapho imvelo yayiphenywa khona kusetshenziswa izimpikiswano ezinengqondo kanye nokubuka okuqondile. Kungalesi simo lapho kwavela khona amagama amabili aphawulekayo emlandweni wezinto eziphilayo kanye nezokwelapha: uHippocrates no-Aristotle. Babengebona "izazi zezinto eziphilayo" ngomqondo wanamuhla, kodwa babeyizazi zefilosofi zemvelo, ezazikhathalela ukuqonda ukusebenza komzimba kanye nokwehlukahlukana kwezinto eziphilayo.
UHippocrates waseKos: umzimba kanye "nenkinga yezokwelapha"
UHippocrates waseKos ukhunjulwa ngokwesiko ngokuthi "uyise wezokwelapha," kodwa ifa lakhe libalulekile emlandweni wezinto eziphilayo. Ehlala eGrisi Yakudala, waziqhelelanisa nezincazelo ezingaphezu kwemvelo zezifo futhi waqala ukugcizelela izici zemvelo njengendawo ezungezile, ukudla, kanye nemikhuba yokuphila. Esigabeni sokuqala somsebenzi wakhe, wamukela umbono wama-Four Humors - igazi, i-phlegm, i-yellow bile, kanye ne-black bile - okufanele kube nokulinganisela ukuze kugcinwe impilo.
Ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, uHippocrates waqala ukuyeka ukuhumusha okuqinile kwamahlaya nokubeka inhlalakahle iyonke yesiguli esiyinhloko kwezokwelapha. Esikhundleni sokuzikhawulela kumalebula okuxilonga, wazisa ukubikezela: ukuqapha ukuvela kwesifo nokubikezela imiphumela yaso. Kulokhu kwavela umqondo "wenkinga yezokwelapha," isikhathi esibalulekile lapho izivikelo zemvelo zomzimba zisusa khona into ehlaselayo noma zilahlekelwe yimpi, okuvumela lesi sifo ukuba sisabalale.
Lokhu kugxila ekuguqukeni kwesithombe sezokwelapha kwaholela uHippocrates ekubhaleni amacala, ukuqhathanisa iziguli, nokubheka amaphethini—indlela eyisisekelo yezinto eziphilayo. Isiphakamiso sakhe sasingakaqali ukusetshenziswa ngomqondo wesimanje, kodwa sahlanganisa indlela yokucabanga eyayibheka izinto eziphilayo njengohlelo oluhlala lulwela ukugcina ibhalansi lapho lubhekene nezinsongo zangaphandle, umqondo ozwakala emakhulwini eminyaka kamuva, ku-physiology kanye ne-immunology.
U-Aristotle: ukuhlukaniswa kwezidalwa eziphilayo kanye nokubuka okubonakalayo
U-Aristotle, owaziwa kakhulu njengesazi sefilosofi, wayengomunye wezazi zebhayoloji ezinkulu zokuqala emlandweni. Njengoba ayeyintandane esemncane, wayenenkululeko yokuhlakanipha yokufunda noma yini ayifunayo, futhi ePlato's Academy e-Athens, wazicwilisa kuzo zonke izindawo zolwazi. Lapho eshiya i-Academy, wachitha isikhathi esiqhingini saseLesbos, lapho azinikela khona kakhulu ekubukeni izitshalo, izilwane zasolwandle nezasemhlabeni.
Umsebenzi wakhe wezinto eziphilayo uhlanganisa izincazelo ezinemininingwane zezinhlobo ezingaba ngu-500, egcizelela kakhulu i-zoology kanye nezilwane zasolwandle, kodwa futhi egxile kakhulu ezitshalweni. U-Aristotle wayenganeliswanga ukuqagela; imibhalo yakhe ikhombisa ukuhlukaniswa kanye nokubuka okuqondile kwezitho nezinhlelo, kanye nemidwebo yezitho zomzimba enembile kangangokuthi ayinakuba umkhiqizo womcabango nje. Wahlola ukwakheka komzimba, ukuzala, intuthuko yombungu, kanye nokuziphatha.
Elinye lamafa amakhulu ka-Aristotle kwakuwumzamo wakhe wokuhlukanisa izinto eziphilayo zibe amaqembu ngokufana kwazo nokwehluka kwazo. Wadala uhlu lwezigaba olwaluhlukanisa, isibonelo, izilwane ezinegazi (cishe izilwane zethu ezinomgogodla) kulezo ezingenalo igazi (izilwane ezingenamgogodla), futhi wahlela uhlobo "lwesilinganiso semvelo" lapho izidalwa zahlelwa khona kusukela kwezilula kuya kweziyinkimbinkimbi kakhulu. Nakuba namuhla sazi ukuthi eziningi zezigaba zakhe azibonisi ukuziphendukela kwemvelo, indlela yakhe ehlelekile yathonya izazi zemvelo amakhulu eminyaka.
Umbono ka-Aristotle ngesimo esihlelekile, esilawulwa yizimbangela nemithetho, wabumba ukucabanga kodokotela nezazi zemvelo kusukela endulo kuze kube ngale kweNkathi Ephakathi. Ngisho nalapho ubufakazi obusha buqala ukuphikisa amacebo akhe, ososayensi abaningi babesabheka ku-Aristotle njengereferensi, noma ukuze bathuthukise kuwo noma bawagxeke. Akungabazeki ukuthi ungomunye wabanduleli abakhulu bebhayoloji yokubuka nokuhlukanisa.
UGalen wasePergamon: i-anatomy, i-physiology, kanye nokuhlolwa kwezilwane.
UGalen wasePergamon, udokotela ongumGreki wasendulo, ubhekwa njengomunye wabacwaningi bezokwelapha abanethonya kakhulu kunabo bonke. Ubuntu bakhe bachazwa njengomuntu onzima, ozikhukhumezayo, nothanda ukuxabana nozakwabo, okwamenza wesaba ukuphindiselelwa futhi wabaleka eRoma ukuze agweme ukufa okunobudlova. Naphezu kwalesi simo sengqondo, ubuhlakani bakhe besayensi bashiya uphawu olujulile kubhayoloji nakwezokwelapha.
Ngesikhathi sikaGalen, ukuhlukaniswa kwezidumbu zabantu kwakuvinjelwe ezweni elikhulu lamaGreki namaRoma, okwamphoqa ukuthi afunde ngemizimba yezilwane. Wenza ukuhlinzwa okuningi ezingulubeni, ezimbuzini, ikakhulukazi ezinkawini, ecabanga ukuthi ukwakheka kwazo kufana kakhulu nokomuntu. Engazi lutho nge-DNA noma ukuziphendukela kwemvelo, waqala ngokufana kwangaphandle waze waphetha ngokufana kwangaphakathi phakathi kwezinhlobo ezihlobene.
UGalen wavelela ngesibindi sakhe sokuhlola, yize asebenzisa amasu abhekwa njengonya kakhulu manje. Enye yezindlela zakhe ezidumile zokuhlola yayihilela ukuveza i-larynx yengulube ephilayo: ngenkathi isilwane sikhala, sasisika izintambo zezwi futhi sabona ukuthi umsindo wawuphela, yize ingulube yayilokhu ikhathazekile. Ngezinye izikhathi, wayenqamula imizwa yemisipha ukuze afunde ubudlelwano phakathi kwalezi zinqwaba kanye nokungakwazi ukunyakaza komlenze noma esinye isitho somzimba ngokuzumayo.
Izifundo zikaGalen zakha isisekelo sezindawo zonke zebhayoloji yezokwelapha, njenge-pharmacology, i-pathology, i-physiology, i-anatomy, kanye ne-neurology. Wachaza indima yezitho ezahlukahlukene, waxoxa ngokugeleza kwegazi okungaphelele, futhi wasikisela ukuhumusha okusebenzayo kwezinzwa nemisipha. Nakuba imininingwane eminingi yemibono yakhe yalungiswa emakhulwini eminyaka kamuva, umsebenzi wakhe wawubusa kakhulu ekufundiseni kwezokwelapha eYurophu naseSulumane kuyo yonke iNkathi Ephakathi.
Iminikelo yezwe lamaSulumane ku-biology
Nakuba ingxenye enkulu yeNtshonalanga Yurophu yayigcwele izingxabano zenkolo kanye nokuwohloka kwamasiko ngesikhathi seNkathi Ephakathi Yokuqala, izwe lamaSulumane lalibhekene "neNkathi Yegolide" enamandla yesayensi. Phakathi kwekhulu lesi-8 nelesi-9, izazi zamaSulumane zalondoloza imibhalo yesiGreki, zaxoxa ngamasiko asePheresiya naseNdiya, futhi zakhiqiza imisebenzi yokuqala kwezesayensi yezinkanyezi, izibalo, ezokwelapha kanye nesayensi yemvelo, okuhlanganisa nokufunda ngokuphila.
Omunye wabacabangi abathakazelisa kakhulu be-biology kwakungu-Al-Jahiz (781-869), owabhala ngobudlelwano phakathi kwezinto eziphilayo ezixhumene nokudla. Imibhalo yakhe iqukethe imibono emangalisayo mayelana nokuncintisana ngezinsiza, ukudla ezinye izilwane, kanye nokusinda okuhlukile, elindele amakhulu eminyaka imiqondo ethile ehlobene nokuziphendukela kwemvelo kanye "nomzabalazo wokusinda" owawuzohlanganiswa kamuva noDarwin kanye nokukhethwa kwemvelo.
Elinye igama elibalulekile yileli lika-Al-Dinawari (828-896), ovame ukubizwa njengomunye wabasunguli bezitshalo zesayensi. Wachaza izinhlobo zezitshalo ezingaba ngu-637, exoxa ngezinhlobo zazo, izindawo ezazikhula kuzo, kanye nokusetshenziswa kwazo okungokoqobo. Umsebenzi wakhe wasiza ekudaleni umbono ohlelekile wezwe lezitshalo, ehlanganisa ukubuka insimu, ukuhlukaniswa ngezigaba, kanye nokusetshenziswa kwezokwelapha noma kwezolimo.
U-Al-Biruni (973-1048), naye, wathuthukisa umqondo wokukhetha okwenziwe, ecabanga ngendlela abantu abakhetha ngayo izitshalo nezilwane ezinezici ezifiselekayo zokuzala. Lokhu kuqonda ngemiphumela yokukhetha evezwa abantu, emakhulwini eminyaka kamuva, kwaba yimpikiswano ebalulekile yokuchaza ukukhethwa kwemvelo ezilwaneni zasendle. Ngezindlela eziningi, i-Al-Biruni ingabonakala njengesandulela semibono yokuziphendukela kwemvelo.
Kusukela kufilosofi yemvelo kuya kuNguquko Yesayensi
Kuyo yonke iNkathi Ephakathi Yasekupheleni, amanye amanyuvesi aseYurophu aqala ukuvuselela ukutadisha imvelo, kodwa i-biology yaqhubeka imbozwe yimikhakha efana ne-physics kanye ne-chemistry. Amagama anjengoHildegard waseBingen, u-Albertus Magnus, kanye nososayensi wezemvelo uFrederick II waseHohenstaufen banikele ngokubona izitshalo, izilwane kanye nokusebenza komzimba, kodwa intuthuko yayincane kakhulu.
Lokhu kushintsha kakhulu nge-Renaissance kanye nokuguqukela eNkathini Yesimanje, lapho ubuhlakani kanye nokucabanga kuthola amandla amasha njengezindlela zokuqonda umhlaba. Intshisekelo kwisayensi yemvelo iyakhula, futhi izazi zezitshalo, izazi ze-anatomical, kanye nezazi zemvelo ziqala ukukhiqiza izitshalo, amaqoqo ezilwane, izilwane ezifuywayo ezinemifanekiso, kanye nezincwadi zokwakheka komzimba ezisekelwe ekuhlukanisweni kwabantu. Imithi yesimanje iqala ukuhlanganisa, futhi kanye nayo, umbono wokuhlola we-physiology.
Intuthuko ephawulekayo yebhayoloji yavela kwifiziksi kanye nokukhanya: ukusungulwa kwe-microscope ekupheleni kwekhulu le-16. Njengoba kunamalensi ayinkimbinkimbi ngokwengeziwe, sekuyinto engenzeka ukubona ingxenye entsha ngokuphelele yokuphila. Imininingwane emincane yezinambuzane, izakhiwo zezitshalo ezincane, kanye nezinto eziphilayo ezingabonakali ngeso lenyama seziyisihloko sokutadisha, zivula iminyango ye-microbiology kanye ne-histology.
Ngo-1665, uRobert Hooke washicilela incwadi ethi "Micrographia," incwadi enezithombe enokubonwa okwenziwe ngesibonakhulu okwashaqisa futhi kwakhanga umphakathi waseYurophu. Ebheka amashidi amancane ekhokho, uHooke wachaza izingxenye ezingenalutho azibiza ngokuthi “amangqamuzana,” eqamba igama elalizoba yingqikithi yebhayoloji. Wabhala futhi isakhiwo sezimpukane, izintuthwane, nezinye izidalwa ezincane ngemininingwane engakaze ibonwe.
U-Anton van Leeuwenhoek: umhlaba omncane uyaphila
U-Anton van Leeuwenhoek, umthengisi wezindwangu waseDashi, wayengumuntu othanda kakhulu ukuzenzela izinto owathuthukisa imakroskopu wayiyisa ezingeni elisha. Ngaphandle kwemfundo yaseyunivesithi esemthethweni, waqala ukusebenza njengomthengisi wesitolo kanye nomgcinimabhuku, kodwa wahlabeka umxhwele lapho ebona imakroskopu elula okokuqala. Ilukuluku lakhe lamholela ekwenzeni amalensi anamandla kakhulu, edlula ikhwalithi yezinsimbi eziningi zemfundo.
Phakathi kwezibopho zomsebenzi nezomndeni, uVan Leeuwenhoek wanikela amahora akhe egcina konke ayengakwenza: amaconsi amanzi, ukunqunywa kwamazinyo, igazi, imicu yezitshalo, izicubu, isidoda, nokunye okuningi. Umgomo wakhe kwakuwukukhulisa amandla okukhulisa ukuze embule imininingwane emisha. Lokhu kuphishekela kwamenza waba ngcono kakhulu kuma-microscope, yize abaningi bamgxeka ngokuntuleka kwakhe "kwenhlonipho kwezemfundo."
Ebheka amanzi abonakala ehlanzekile, uVan Leeuwenhoek uqale wachaza lokho esikubiza ngokuthi amabhaktheriya nama-protozoa, awabiza ngokuthi “ama-animalcules.” Waphinde wabona isidoda, amangqamuzana abomvu egazi, kanye nezakhiwo eziningi ezincane kakhulu. Lokhu okutholwe kukhombisile ukuthi ukuphila akugcini kulokho iso lomuntu elingakubona, kuguqula njalo indlela esiqonda ngayo izifo, ukuzala kanye nezinhlelo zemvelo.
Ngokuthakazelisayo, umlando wakhe ubonakala ngezinhlekelele zakhe: waphila isikhathi eside kunezingane zakhe ezine kwezinhlanu kanye namakhosikazi akhe womabili, okungenzeka ukuthi kwamenza wazinikela kakhulu ekufundeni. Nokho, uma kubhekwa kude, lokhu "kungazi lutho" okusobala kwakuyinzuzo: wabheka i-biology ngombono omusha, ongaboshiwe kakhulu yimfundiso yezemfundo, eyamvumela ukuthi athole izinto eziningi ochwepheshe abaningi, ngenxa yokubandlulula noma ukungabi nelukuluku, abangazange bazibone.
UCarl Linnaeus: I-Taxonomy njengolimi olujwayelekile
UCarl Linnaeus, isazi semvelo saseSweden esivela emndenini ocebile, wayengumakhi omkhulu wesistimu yesimanje yokuhlukanisa izinto eziphilayo. Efundiswe ngezincwadi, isayensi, kanye nobuciko, waqala ukuba nesithakazelo esikhulu kwezitshalo, into eyaqashelwa othisha bakhe, abaqala ukumkhuthaza ngezincwadi, amasampula ezitshalo, kanye namathuba okufunda.
E-University of Lund futhi kamuva e-Uppsala, uLinnaeus wafunda ngezitshalo kanye nezokwelapha futhi wajabulisa othisha bakhe ngekhono lakhe lokubuka nokuhlela izitshalo ngendlela ehlelekile. Wathola ukwesekwa kohambo lokuhlola, njengohambo oludumile oluya eLapland, futhi wahamba ezindaweni ezahlukene zaseYurophu eqoqa izitshalo, echaza izinhlobo, futhi ephawula izici azibheka njengezifanele ukuhlukaniswa.
Ngemva kweminyaka eminingi yomsebenzi kanye nezincwadi eziningi, uLinnaeus walungisa uhlelo olwaluzomenza abe ngomunye wezinsika zebhayoloji yanamuhla: i-binomial taxonomy. Isiphakamiso sakhe sihlela izidalwa eziphilayo ngezigaba ezilandelanayo - njengombuso, isigaba, ukuhleleka, umndeni, uhlobo, kanye nezinhlobo - futhi siqinisekisa ukuthi uhlobo ngalunye luthola igama lesayensi elinezingxenye ezimbili ngesiLatini, isibonelo, i-Homo sapiens yohlobo lwabantu.
Lolu hlelo lwaguqula ifa lika-Aristotle ngokunikeza ulimi olujwayelekile nolujwayelekile lokwehlukahluka kokuphila. Esikhundleni sokuthembela emagameni avamile, ayehluka kuye ngesifunda, izazi zezitshalo, izazi zezilwane, kanye nezazi zemvelo emhlabeni wonke baqala ukuqondana besebenzisa amagama esayensi. Lokhu kuhlanganiswa kwakubalulekile ukuze i-biology ibe isayensi eqhathanisayo neyomhlaba wonke, okuhlanganisa ukubonwa okwenziwe emazwenikazi akude.
Ibhayoloji ngekhulu le-19: ukuziphendukela kwemvelo kanye nezakhi zofuzo
Kusukela ngasekupheleni kwekhulu le-18 kuqhubeke, i-biology yangena esigabeni sokwanda okukhulu, okuqhutshwa ubuchwepheshe, ukuhamba ibanga elide, kanye neNguquko Yezimboni. I-physiology yahlukana kancane kancane nemithi, umlando wemvelo waba namandla okuhlola, futhi kwavela amakhono akhethekile njenge-morphology, i-embryology, i-bacteriology, i-geology, kanye ne-biogeography. Phakathi kwale nhlanganisela yemibono, kwavela imibono yokuqala yokuziphendukela kwemvelo kwezinto eziphilayo.
UJean-Baptiste Lamarck, ekuqaleni kwekhulu le-19, waphakamisa ukuthi izinto eziphilayo ziyashintsha ngokuhamba kwezizukulwane ngenxa yokusetshenziswa noma ukungasetshenziswa kwezitho zomzimba. Ngokusho kwakhe, izakhiwo ezisetshenziswa njalo zizokhula futhi zidluliselwe enzalweni, kuyilapho izingxenye ezingasetshenziswa kakhulu zizothambekela ekuwohlokeni. Nakuba sekuyaziwa manje ukuthi le ndlela ayichazi ukuvela kwemvelo, uLamarck ufanele ukuqashelwa ngokubeka ushintsho lwezinhlobo enkabeni yempikiswano yesayensi.
Nokho, ushintsho olukhulu lwafika noCharles Darwin, isazi semvelo saseNgilandi, isazi sezinto eziphilayo, isazi sezilwane, kanye nesazi sezinto eziphilayo owayenokuphila okunokuthula kakhulu. Ecindezelwa umndeni wakhe ukuba aphishekele umsebenzi wezokwelapha noma ubufundisi, uDarwin akazange azivumelanise nomkhuba wokuhlinzwa futhi wagcina esehileleke emaqenjini okuxoxa ngomlando wemvelo. Kwenye yalezi zindilinga, wahlangana nesazi sezilwane uRobert Edmund Grant, umsekeli wemibono yokuziphendukela kwemvelo eNgilandi yamaKristu yekhulu le-19, isikhathi lapho ukuvuma ngokusobala ukuziphendukela kwemvelo kwakuwukubeka engcupheni udumo ngisho nokuvikeleka komsebenzi.
Esikebheni iBeagle, ohambweni olude lokuzungeza umhlaba, uDarwin waqoqa okubonwe kanye nokuqoqwa kwezilwane, izinsalela zamathambo, nezitshalo, okwathi, kuhlanganiswe nemibono yabantu kaThomas Malthus, kwamholela ekwakhiweni kokukhethwa kwemvelo. Waqaphela ukuthi kunoma yiliphi inani labantu, kuzalwa abantu abaningi kunalokho imvelo engakusekela; ngenxa yalokho, kukhona "umzabalazo wokusinda" lapho ukuhlukahluka okunenzuzo kwandisa amathuba okushiya inzalo. Ngolimi oludumile, lokhu kufingqiwe enkulumweni ethi "ukusinda kwabanamandla kakhulu".
Ngo-1859, uDarwin washicilela incwadi ethi "On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection," incwadi eyathengiswa ngosuku lwayo lokuqala futhi yashaqisa umphakathi waseBrithani ogcina imithetho. Incwadi, ebhalwe ngokucacile okukhulu kanye nokufundisa, ixoxe ngobufakazi bezinsalela, ukwakheka komzimba okuqhathanisayo, ukusatshalaliswa kwendawo, kanye nokuzalaniswa kwezilwane zasekhaya ukusekela ingqikithi eshintshayo ngokuhamba kwesikhathi. Akukhona ukweqisa ukusho ukuthi ingenye yezincwadi zesayensi ezifundwa kabanzi futhi ezinethonya kakhulu kuzo zonke izikhathi.
Ngesikhathi uDarwin ebeka isisekelo sokuqonda ukuhlukahluka kokuphila, omunye umuntu owayesandulela wayesebenza cishe buthule ngesisekelo sezakhi zofuzo zanamuhla: uGregor Mendel. Indodana yomlimi ompofu, uMendel wayephumelela kakhulu kwifiziksi nezibalo, kodwa impilo yakhe ebuthaka kanye nezindleko zezifundo zakhe kwaphazamisa imfundo yakhe. Ukungena esigodlweni sezindela nokuba yi-frar kwakuyisixazululo asithola ukuqinisekisa imfundo yakhe kanye nendlela yakhe yokuphila.
ENyuvesi yase-Olomouc, uMendel wafunda noJohann Karl Nestler, uprofesa woMlando Wemvelo owacwaninga izici zofuzo ezilwaneni. Lokhu kwavusa isithakazelo sakhe kwifa lezinto eziphilayo. Engadini yezindela, uMendel wachitha iminyaka ehlanganisa izitshalo ezahlukene zama-pea, ephawula imibala yezimbali, ukuma kwembewu, nezinye izici ezizukulwaneni ezilandelanayo. Kusukela kulokhu kubekezela kwesayensi kwazalwa imithetho kaMendel, echaza ukuthi izici zofuzo (manje ezibizwa ngokuthi izakhi zofuzo) zihlangana futhi zihlukanise kanjani ekwakhekeni kwama-gametes.
Nakuba umsebenzi wakhe wawungabalulekile ngesikhathi sokuphila kwakhe, ukutholakala kabusha kwemithetho kaMendel ekuqaleni kwekhulu lama-20 kwaqinisa ukuxhumana phakathi kwezakhi zofuzo zikaMendelian kanye nokuziphendukela kwemvelo kukaDarwin. Lokhu kuhlangana komqondo kwadala lokho okwaziwa ngokuthi ukuhlanganiswa kwesimanje kokuziphendukela kwemvelo, okubheka ukukhethwa kwemvelo njengokusebenza ekushintsheni kwezakhi zofuzo okuzuzwa njengefa, kwaqedela isithombe esaqalwa ngabanduleli bokuqala bezinto eziphilayo.
Kusukela kuseli kuya ku-DNA: ukuhlanganisa i-biology yesimanje.
Phakathi kwekhulu le-19 nele-20, uchungechunge lwezinto ezitholakele lwasondeza kakhulu i-biology kumakhemikhali kanye ne-physics. Ososayensi abanjengoMatthias Schleiden noTheodor Schwann babonise ukuthi zonke izinto eziphilayo zakhiwe ngamaseli, basungula inkolelo-mbono yamaseli. URobert Koch wathola imbangela yesifo sofuba futhi wasiza ekutholeni i-bacteriology, kanti uLouis Pasteur wasungula i-pasteurization futhi waba ngumholi ekudalweni kwemithi yokugoma.
Ku-genetics, umsebenzi kaThomas Hunt Morgan wembula ukuthi izakhi zofuzo zihlelwe ngokulandelana kwama-chromosome, zivula indlela yokufunda ngefa ezingeni lama-chromosome. U-Aleksandr Oparin, naye, waphakamisa izimo zamakhemikhali ezinengqondo zokuvela kokuphila eMhlabeni wasendulo, exoxa ngokuthi ama-molecule ezinto eziphilayo angavela kanjani ngaphansi kwezimo zokhokho. Lezi ntuthuko zavula indlela yenguquko enkulu kakhulu yama-molecule yekhulu lama-20: ukutholakala kwesakhiwo se-DNA.
UJames Watson noFrancis Crick, ngokusekelwe kudatha ye-X-ray diffraction eyakhiqizwa nguRosalind Franklin noMaurice Wilkins, bachaza i-DNA double helix ngo-1953. Ngokuqonda ukuthi ulwazi lwezakhi zofuzo lugcinwa kanjani, lukopishwe futhi ludluliselwe kanjani, i-biology yathola ulimi olusha: oluyikhodi yezakhi zofuzo. Kusukela lapho, i-genetics, i-biochemistry, kanye ne-molecule biology kwahlanganiswa ensimini enamandla kakhulu yokuxazulula izinqubo ezibalulekile.
Izandulela zebhayoloji yanamuhla
Ekhulwini lama-20 nasekuqaleni kwekhulu lama-21, amaphayona amasha andisa imingcele yebhayoloji, ikakhulukazi ku-genetics yama-molecular, i-biology yentuthuko, i-systems biology, kanye ne-ecology. Basebenzisa ifa likaDarwin, uMendel, nabanye abaningi ukuze bahlole imibuzo efana nokukhula kwe-embryonic, ukuvezwa kwezakhi zofuzo, ukusebenza kwamanethiwekhi ezakhi zofuzo, imvelaphi yokuphila, kanye nokwehlukahlukana kwemvelo.
Isibonelo, uLeroy Hood, isazi sezinto eziphilayo saseMelika esaguqula isayensi yezinto eziphilayo kanye nezakhi zofuzo ngokuthuthukisa amathuluzi abalulekile okutadisha i-DNA namaprotheni. Phakathi kweminikelo yakhe kukhona ukucaciswa kwendlela isimiso somzimba sokuzivikela esikhiqiza ngayo ukuhlukahluka okukhulu kwama-antibodies kusukela ekuhlanganisweni kwezingxenye ze-DNA, okuchaza isisekelo sama-molecule sempendulo yomzimba. Emsebenzini wakhe wokuhlukahluka kwama-antibody, ukhombisile ukuthi ukuhlukahluka okusebenzayo kuncike ekuhlukeni kokulandelana kwama-amino acid akha la ma-molecule.
UHood uphinde wahola ukuthuthukiswa kwe-DNA sequencer yokuqala ezenzakalelayo, ithuluzi eliyisisekelo le-Human Genome Project kanye ne-genomics ephezulu. Ezingxoxweni, ugcizelela ukuthi lokhu kusungula izinto ezintsha akwenzanga nje kuphela ukuthi kube nokwenzeka ukufunda i-genome yomuntu ngesikhathi esirekhodiwe, kodwa futhi kwaholela enkathini lapho i-biology yaqala ukubhekana nedatha eningi, okukhuthaza ukuvela kwe-biology yezinhlelo kanye nemithi eyenzelwe wena.
UChristiane Nüsslein-Volhard, isazi sezinto eziphilayo esithuthukayo saseJalimane futhi owathola uMklomelo KaNobel kuPhysiology noma Medicine ngo-1995, ungomunye umuntu obalulekile ku-biology yanamuhla. Uphenye ukuthi izakhi zofuzo zilawula kanjani ukukhula kombungu, eqala ngempukane yezithelo i-Drosophila melanogaster. Ezifundweni zakhe, uthole izakhi zofuzo zomama kanye neze-zygotic ezisungula ama-axes embungu, njengezakhi zofuzo ze-bicoid, i-RNA yayo ethunyelwe igxile endaweni engaphambili yeqanda futhi inquma ukwakheka kwekhanda lesinambuzane.
UNüsslein-Volhard wandisa le ndlela ku-zebrafish, wasiza ekuyiguquleni ibe yisibonelo sezinto eziphilayo zokufunda ngentuthuko yezilwane ezinomgogodla. Ngokuhlaziya izinguquko ezithinta umbala, ukwakheka kwezitho zomzimba, kanye nephethini yomzimba, wasiza ekwembuleni izimiso ezijwayelekile zendlela ama-genome aqondisa ngayo ukwakhiwa kwezinto eziphilayo eziyinkimbinkimbi ezivela eqandeni elilodwa elivundisiwe.
UJ. Craig Venter ungomunye umlingiswa oyinhloko wesikhathi se-genomic, owaziwa ngokuhola enye yezinhlobo zokuqala zokulandelana kwe-genome yomuntu kanye nokudlulisela amaseli ngama-chromosome okwenziwa. Waba ngumsunguli wokwakhiwa kwamathegi okulandelana achazwe (ama-EST), inqubo eyayihilela ukulandelana kwezingxenye ze-cDNA ukuze kutholakale ngokushesha futhi kubhalwe izakhi zofuzo. Lokhu kwasheshisa ukutholakala kwezakhi zofuzo ezintsha futhi kwahlela kabusha indlela i-genome eyadwetshwa ngayo.
Ngokubambisana noHamilton Smith, uVenter uphinde wahlela i-genome ephelele yebhaktheriya i-Haemophilus influenzae, okwenza kube yinto yokuqala ephilayo ekhululekile ene-genome echazwe ngokuphelele. Le mpumelelo, efezwe esikhathini esingaphansi konyaka, ibonise amandla obuchwepheshe obusha bokulandelana kokushintsha i-microbiology, imithi, kanye ne-biology yokuziphendukela kwemvelo.
URonald M. Evans, isazi sezinto eziphilayo saseMelika, wenza iminikelo ebalulekile kwizakhi zofuzo zama-molecule ngokuchaza ama-receptor ama-hormone enuzi. Wabonisa ukuthi la maprotheni akha "umndeni omkhulu" wama-receptor asabela kuma-hormone e-steroid, ama-hormone e-thyroid, amavithamini A no-D, kanye nama-lipids okudla, alawula amanethiwekhi ezakhi zofuzo asukela ekukhuleni kombungu kuya ekusetshenzisweni komzimba kwabantu abadala.
U-Evans uphinde wembula izindlela zama-molecule ezihilelekile kumdlavuza nesifo sikashukela ezingaguqulwa yimithi evuselela la ma-receptor. Ezifundweni zakhe, waqokomisa, isibonelo, indima ebalulekile ye-MYC proto-oncogene ezindleleni eziningi zokubonisana kwamaseli, okuhlanganisa nomdlavuza we-pancreatic. Muva nje, wasiza ekuthuthukiseni lokho okubizwa ngokuthi "ama-mimetics okuzivocavoca," izinto ezikwazi ukuvuselela emisipheni ezinye zezinhlelo ezifanayo zofuzo ezibangelwa umsebenzi womzimba, ezinamandla okwelapha ukuphazamiseka kwe-metabolic kanye nemisipha.
UJack W. Szostak, owathola umklomelo weNobel ku-Physiology noma Medicine, uphakathi kwamagama ahamba phambili kwezakhi zofuzo zanamuhla. Wayenesibopho sokudala i-chromosome yokuqala yemvubelo yokwenziwa, eyakhiwe ngama-gene ahlanganisiwe, ama-replicator, ama-centromere, nama-telomere, ekhiqiza izakhiwo ezibalulekile zama-chromosome emvelo. Lokhu kusungula izinto ezintsha kwenze kwaba nokwenzeka ukumaka ama-gene ezincelisayo nokuthuthukisa amasu okuphatha izakhi zofuzo.
Ngawo-1990, ilabhorethri kaSzostak yaphendukela ocwaningweni lwama-enzyme e-RNA kanye nemvelaphi yokuphila. Wakha indlela yokuziphendukela kwemvelo ye-RNA ye-in vitro, evumela ukukhethwa kwama-molecule anemisebenzi efiselekayo ngemijikelezo yokuguqulwa kwezakhi zofuzo, ukukhulisa, nokukhetha, futhi wahlukanisa ama-aptamer okuqala, ama-RNA anobuhlobo obuphezulu bezinhloso ezithile. Njengamanje, ucwaningo lwakhe luhlola ukuthi amaketanga e-RNA ayengaphindaphindwa kanjani eMhlabeni wakuqala, esebenzisa ama-ribonucleotide asebenza nge-imidazole njengezitini zokwakha, futhi ufuna ukudala ama-protocol elabhorethri ukuze aqonde kangcono ukuvela kokuphila.
USydney Brenner, omunye owathola umklomelo weNobel ovelele, wasebenzisa isibungu esincane i-Caenorhabditis elegans ukuze ahlukanise izimiso zofuzo kanye nentuthuko. Wasiza ekuqondeni indlela amangqamuzana afunda ngayo i-DNA ukuze akhiqize amaprotheni, ekhombisa ukuthi ama-triplets e-nucleotide bases code akhiqiza ama-amino acid athile. Wafunda nokuthi ukuguquka kwezakhi zofuzo kwakha kanjani izakhiwo eziyinkimbinkimbi ezintweni eziphilayo eziphakeme.
UBrenner waguqula ama-C. elegans aba yimodeli yezilwane ebhekisela kuzo yokufunda ukuguga, ukufa kwamangqamuzana okuhleliwe, kanye nokuthuthukiswa kwezinzwa. Abacwaningi abanjengoHeidi Tissenbaum babika ukuthi lesi sibungu esibonakalayo sivumele ukuhlonza amakhulu ezakhi zofuzo kanye nezindlela eziguqula impilo, kwembulwe izindlela ezigciniwe phakathi kwezilwane ezingenamgogodla kanye nezilwane ezincelisayo. Ukuqashelwa kwalo msebenzi kwatholela uBrenner kanye nozakwabo umklomelo weNobel ngo-2002.
Ekugcineni u-Edward O. Wilson waletha umbono wezemvelo kanye nokuziphatha kwibhayoloji yesimanje, egxile ekufundweni kwezintuthwane (i-myrmecology). Umsebenzi wakhe ocophelelayo ngokuziphatha kwezenhlalo kwalezi zinambuzane wamenza wabizwa ngokuthi “uyise we-sociology” kanye “noyise wezinhlobonhlobo zezinto eziphilayo.” Wabonisa ukuthi ukuziphatha okubonakala sengathi kuwukuzidela ezintuthwaneni—njengokunikela ngabantu ngabanye ekuvikeleni ikoloni—kungachazwa kanjani yizintshisekelo zofuzo ezihlanganyelwe, njengoba izintuthwane eziyizisebenzi zihlobene kakhulu.
UWilson uphinde wavikela umqondo "wokubekezelelana," ukuhlanganiswa kolwazi oluvela ezindaweni ezahlukene - isayensi yemvelo kanye nobuntu - kube umbono ohlangene. Kuye, imvelo yomuntu ibunjwa yimithetho ye-epigenetic, amaphethini ezakhi zofuzo athonya intuthuko yengqondo, kuyilapho isiko kanye nemikhuba kuyimikhiqizo, hhayi izisekelo, zalolu hlobo. Ukuzikhandla kwakhe emvelweni kwaba negalelo ekubekeni ukulondolozwa kwezinhlobonhlobo zezinto eziphilayo enkabeni ye-ajenda yesayensi kanye neyomphakathi.
Ibhayoloji ngekhulu lama-21
Ikhulu lama-20 nelama-21 liye labona ukuqhuma okukhulu kwezindawo ezintsha eziphilayo, ikakhulukazi lezo ezihlobene nezakhi zofuzo zama-molecule, ubuchwepheshe be-bio, kanye ne-biophysics. Ukulandelana kwezakhi zofuzo zomuntu, okwaqedwa ekuqaleni kwaleli khulu leminyaka, kwavula ithuba lokufunda izifo, ubudlelwano, kanye nokuziphendukela kwemvelo ezingeni lemininingwane engacabangeki kuDarwin noma kuMendel.
Amathuluzi afana nendlela yokuhlela izakhi zofuzo ye-CRISPR aguqule i-DNA yaba yithagethi enembile kakhulu, esebenzisekayo, evumela ukulungiswa kwezinguquko, ukudalwa kwezinto eziphilayo eziguquliwe, kanye nokuphenywa kwendima yezakhi zofuzo ezithile. Ngesikhathi esifanayo, kube nesithakazelo esikhulayo ekuqondeni izinhlelo eziyinkimbinkimbi zezinto eziphilayo - njenge-microbiomes, amanethiwekhi e-neural, kanye ne-ecosystem yonke - kusetshenziswa izindlela ze-system biology, ezihlanganisa idatha enkulu nokumodela kwekhompyutha.
Ekuhlanganiseni nefiziksi, i-biophysics, insimu lapho abacwaningi abanjengoTikvah Alper bephumelele khona, ihlola indlela imisebe, amandla, kanye namandla okuxhumana ngayo namaseli, izicubu, kanye nama-molecule ezinto eziphilayo. U-Alper uphenye ngemiphumela yemisebe emangqamuzaneni nasezinqubweni zomzimba nezamakhemikhali, waba negalelo elibalulekile ekuqondeni izifo ezifana ne-spongiform encephalopathy ezithathelwanayo, okuhlanganisa "nesifo sezinkomo ezihlanyayo" esidumile. Ucwaningo lwakhe lube nomthelela oqondile emasu okulawula ubhubhane.
Indlela u-Alper ahamba ngayo iphinde igcizelele ubunzima bezithiyo zomphakathi emsebenzini wesayensi: njengowesifazane oshadile futhi engumgxeki wobandlululo eNingizimu Afrika, kwadingeka afune amathuba ezibhedlela nasemanyuvesi e-United Kingdom ukuze aqhubeke nocwaningo lwakhe. Lapho, wakhiqiza umsebenzi osezingeni eliphezulu kwi-radiobiology kanye ne-molecular biology, egcizelela ukubaluleka kwezindawo zemfundo ezibandakanya kakhulu ekuthuthukisweni kwesayensi.
UKristine Bonnevie, isazi sezinto eziphilayo saseNorway, ungomunye isibonelo somcwaningi owahlanganisa ukukhiqizwa okunamandla kwesayensi kanye nobushoshovu bezepolitiki. Njengendodakazi kaprofesa nosopolitiki, wazuza uthando lokufunda nokuphila komphakathi. Njengoba ayephothule izifundo zebhayoloji, wanikela ngethisisi yakhe kumaseli egciwane futhi wazigqamisa kwi-cytology yabantu kanye ne-embryology, egxile kwifa lezakhi zofuzo. Wabamba iqhaza kumakomiti kanye nezinhlangano zesayensi waze wakhonza njengommeleli osizayo ephalamende laseNorway, emelela isayensi nemfundo.
Namuhla, ngobuchwepheshe obufana neqiniso elingokoqobo kanye namalebhu edijithali, ukufundisa nokucwaninga ku-biology kufinyelela izithameli ezinkulu ngokwengeziwe. Amapulatifomu okulingisa avumela abafundi nothisha ukuthi bazame ngamasu elebhu ngobuchwepheshe, bahlole izakhiwo ezincane kakhulu, futhi bahlole imibono ngaphandle kwemikhawulo ebonakalayo yelebhu eyodwa. Lokhu kuvumela ukufinyelela kolwazi ngentando yeningi futhi kusiza ukuqeqesha izizukulwane ezintsha zososayensi kanye nabaxazululi bezinkinga.
Intambo exhumanisa uHippocrates, u-Aristotle, uGalen, izihlakaniphi zase-Asia nezamaSulumane, uDarwin, uMendel, uLinnaeus, uVan Leeuwenhoek, kanye nezazi zebhayoloji zama-molecule zanamuhla iyilukuluku elifanayo elibalulekile ngokuphila. Emakhulwini eminyaka, umuntu ngamunye ungeze ingxenye entsha: kusukela ku-anatomy eyisisekelo kuya kuseli, kusukela ku-organic kuya kohlobo, kusukela ku-gene kuya ku-genome, kusukela kumuntu ngamunye kuya ku-ecosystem yomhlaba wonke. Ngenxa yalo mzamo ohlangene, namuhla siyakwazi ukwelapha izifo, ukulondoloza izinhlobo, ukuthuthukisa ezolimo, nokuqonda kangcono indawo yesintu kunethiwekhi yokuphila, kuyilapho izinselele ezintsha zokuziphatha nezesayensi ziqhubeka nokuvela ngokutholwa ngakunye.