I-Oligocene inkathi ye-Cenozoic eyathatha cishe eminyakeni eyizigidi ezingu-33,9 kuya kwezingu-23 edlule. Ngalesi sikhathi, uMhlaba waba nezinguquko eziphawulekayo zesimo sezulu kanye nezokuma kwezwe, okwaba nomthelela ezilwaneni nasezimila. I-Oligocene ihlukaniswe yaba izinkathi ezimbili: ingxenye engezansi eyaziwa ngokuthi i-Early Oligocene kanye nengxenye engenhla njenge-Late Oligocene. Ngokwe-geologically, i-Oligocene imakwa ngezenzakalo ze-tectonic, njengokuhlukaniswa kwamazwekazi kanye nokwakhiwa kwezintaba. Ngokuphathelene nezilwane, phakathi ne-Oligocene, kwavela izilwane ezincelisayo ezinjengezinkawu, amagundane, nezilwane ezidla inyama, kanye nezinyoni nezilwane ezihuquzelayo. Lesi sikhathi saphawulwa ukuhlukahluka kanye nokujwayela impilo yezilwane ukuphendula izinguquko zemvelo.
Incazelo kanye nezici zenkathi ye-Oligocene emlandweni we-geological of the Earth.
I-Oligocene inkathi emlandweni womhlaba wokwakheka komhlaba eyenzeka phakathi kweminyaka eyizigidi ezingama-33,9 kanye nezigidi ezingama-23 edlule. Lesi sikhathi sibonakala ngoshintsho olukhulu esimweni sezulu nezilwane kule planethi.
Ngesikhathi se-Oligocene, Umhlaba waba nokuphola kancane kancane, okuholela ekuthuthukisweni kwezindawo ezomile ezifundeni eziningi. Lokhu kwaphumela ezinhlobonhlobo zezitshalo, ngokuvela kwamahlathi asezindaweni ezishisayo namathafa ezingxenyeni ezihlukahlukene zomhlaba.
Ngokwesimo sezwe, i-Oligocene iphawulwa ngokwakhiwa kwemigodi ebalulekile ye-sedimentary kanye nezintaba, njenge-Alps kanye ne-Andes. Lezi zinqubo ze-tectonic zibe nomthelela omkhulu kumhlaba kanye nokusatshalaliswa kwezinhlobo zezilwane kuso sonke isikhathi.
Mayelana nezilwane, i-Oligocene kwakuyisikhathi soguquko, nezinhlobo eziningi zasendulo ezishabalala futhi ezintsha zivela. Izilwane ezincelisayo ezinjengamahhashi okuqala, obhejane, nezinyamazane zaqala ukwanda, kuyilapho izibankwakazi zase zingasekho.
I-Oligocene ihlukaniswe yaba izinkathi ezimbili: i-Oligocene Yakuqala kanye ne-Late Oligocene. Ngayinye yalezi ziqephu iveza umehluko wesimo sezulu, i-geology, nezilwane, okunikela ekuqondeni kwethu ngokuziphendukela kwemvelo koMhlaba ngalesi sikhathi esibalulekile.
Ngamafuphi, i-Oligocene kwakuyinkathi yoshintsho oluphawulekayo emlandweni womhlaba wokwakheka komhlaba, enomthelela ohlala njalo esimweni sezulu, i-geology, kanye nempilo yezilwane. Ukutadisha le nkathi kusinikeza imininingwane ebalulekile mayelana nokuvela kweplanethi nezinhlobo ezihlala kuyo.
Imicimbi emikhulu phakathi nenkathi ye-Eocene emlandweni womhlaba wokwakheka komhlaba.
I-Eocene kwakuyinkathi ebaluleke kakhulu emlandweni wokwakheka komhlaba, ebonakala ngezinguquko ezimbalwa ezibalulekile. Ngalesi sikhathi, amazwekazi aseLaurasia naseGondwana ahlukana kancane kancane, okwaholela ekwakhekeni kwezilwandle nezilwandle ezintsha. Ngaphezu kwalokho, kwaba nokwanda kwezinhlobonhlobo zezilwane ezincelisayo, ngokuvela kwezinhlobo eziningi zezilwane ezisekhona nanamuhla, njengezinkawu kanye nezilwane ezidla inyama zokuqala zasemhlabeni.
I-Oligocene: izici, ukuhlukaniswa, i-geology nezilwane.
I-Oligocene inkathi eyalandela i-Eocene futhi yandulela i-Miocene, ehlala cishe iminyaka eyizigidi ezingu-11. Ngesikhathi se-Oligocene, isimo sezulu somhlaba wonke sabanda futhi somisa, okuholela ekuveleni kwezindawo eziningi ze-savanna. Lokhu kuguquguquka kwesimo sezulu kwaba nomthelela omkhulu ezitshalo nasezilwaneni zangaleso sikhathi, ngokushabalala kwezinhlobo eziningi ezijwayele izimo zezulu ezifudumele.
I-Oligocene ihlukaniswe yaba izinkathi ezimbili: i-Oligocene Yakuqala kanye ne-Late Oligocene. I-Oligocene Yasekuqaleni imakwa ngokushintsha kwesimo sezulu se-Eocene kuya kwesipholile, kuyilapho i-Late Oligocene ibonakala ngokuhlukahluka okukhulu kwezilwane ezincelisayo nezinyoni.
Ngokwesimo sezwe, i-Oligocene kwakuyinkathi yokusebenza okuqinile kwe-tectonic, ngokwakhiwa kwezintaba kanye nokuphakanyiswa kwezindawo ezinkulu zomhlaba. Ngaphezu kwalokho, izinguquko eziphawulekayo emazingeni olwandle zenzeka, okubangele izinguquko ezinhlelweni zemvelo zasogwini nezasolwandle.
Mayelana nezilwane, i-Oligocene yaphawulwa ukuvela kwezinhlobo ezintsha zezilwane ezincelisayo, njengama-proboscideans okuqala kanye nokhokho bamahhashi anamuhla. Kwakukhona futhi ukuhlukahluka kwezinyoni nezilwane ezihuquzelayo, ngokuvela kwezinhlobo ezintsha ezijwayele isimo sezulu esibandayo, esomile.
Ukuqonda izinkathi ze-Miocene ne-Pliocene: funda kabanzi mayelana nalezi zikhathi zokuma komhlaba.
I-Oligocene isikhathi sokwakheka komhlaba esenzeka phakathi kwe-Eocene ne-Miocene epochs, cishe eminyakeni eyizigidi ezingu-33,9 kuya kwezingu-23 edlule. Ngesikhathi se-Oligocene, isimo sezulu sasipholile futhi somile uma siqhathaniswa nezikhathi ezedlule. Amahlathi asezindaweni ezishisayo aqala ukuncipha, evulela indawo evulekile neyomile.
Esinye sezici eziyinhloko ze-Oligocene kwaba ukuhlukaniswa kwamazwekazi ase-Antarctica nase-Australia, okwenza i-Antarctic Circumpolar Current. Lokhu kube nomthelela omkhulu esimweni sezulu somhlaba wonke, kwathonya imisinga yolwandle namaphethini omoya.
I-Oligocene ihlukaniswe yaba izinkathi ezimbili: i-Oligocene Yakuqala kanye ne-Late Oligocene. Ngalesi sikhathi, izilwane ezincelisayo zaqhubeka nokuhlukahluka, kwavela izinhlobo ezintsha zezilwane ezincelisayo zasemhlabeni nezasemanzini. Phakathi kwezilwane ezazihlala e-Oligocene kwakukhona okhokho bamahhashi esimanje, obhejane, izinyamazane nezinkawu.
Ngokwesimo sokwakheka komhlaba, i-Oligocene yaphawulwa ukunyakaza kwe-tectonic okwakha izintaba, njenge-Alps ne-Andes. Lokhu kwaholela ekushintsheni kwesimo sezulu nokusatshalaliswa kwezinhlobo zezilwane emhlabeni wonke.
Ngamafuphi, i-Oligocene kwakuyinkathi yenguquko emlandweni woMhlaba, ephawulwe ngokushintsha kwesimo sezulu okuphawulekayo, ukunyakaza kwe-tectonic, kanye nokuthuthuka okuqhubekayo kwezilwane. Ukufunda i-Oligocene kusisiza ukuthi siqonde kangcono umlando wokuma komhlaba nowezinto eziphilayo weplanethi yethu.
Izehlakalo ezinkulu kanye nezindlela zokuphila ezivele ngesikhathi seMiocene Yomhlaba.
I-Miocene kwakuyinkathi ebalulekile emlandweni woMhlaba, eyenzeka phakathi kweminyaka engaba yizigidi ezingu-23 kanye nezigidi ezinhlanu edlule. Ngalesi sikhathi, kwenzeka izehlakalo ezimbalwa ezibalulekile futhi kwavela izinhlobo ezintsha zempilo ezalolonga umhlaba njengoba siwazi namuhla.
Olunye lwezinguquko ezinkulu ezenzeka ngesikhathi seMiocene kwaba ukuvela kwezimo zezulu ezibandayo, ezomile kwezinye izifunda zeplanethi, okwaholela ekuthuthukisweni kwama-savanna kanye nezindawo ezinotshani ezindaweni ezimbozwe amahlathi ngaphambilini. Lokhu kwaba nomthelela ekuziphendukeleni kwemvelo kwezinhlobo eziningi zezilwane, okwaholela ekuqhamukeni kwezilwane ezincelisayo ezintsha ezijwayele lezi zimo ezintsha.
Ngaphezu kwalokho, ngesikhathi seMiocene, kwavela okhokho bokuqala babantu, kanye nezinye izilwane ezinjengezinkawu nezinkawu. Lezi zilwane zaqala ukuzivumelanisa nezimo ezihlukahlukene futhi zathuthukisa amakhono ayanda, zavula indlela yokuvela kwezinhlobo zabantu.
Ezinye izinhlobo zokuphila ezavela phakathi neMiocene zihlanganisa izinhlobo ezintsha zezilwane ezincelisayo zasemhlabeni nezasemanzini, izinyoni nezilwane ezihuquzelayo. Eziningi zalezi zilwane zisaqhubeka zikhona nanamuhla, kanti ezinye zashabalala ngokuhamba kwesikhathi.
Kafushane, inkathi ye-Miocene yaphawulwa izinguquko eziphawulekayo zesimo sezulu, ezathonya ukuvela kwezinhlobo eziningana zezilwane futhi zaholela ekuveleni kwezinhlobo ezintsha zokuphila emhlabeni wonke.
I-Oligocene: izici, ukuhlukaniswa, i-geology nezilwane
O Oligocene kwakuyinkathi yesithathu neyokugcina yezinkathi ezakha inkathi ye-Paleogene ye-Cenozoic Era. Isuka eminyakeni eyizigidi ezingama-33,9 edlule yaya cishe eminyakeni eyizigidi ezingama-23 edlule, lapho iplanethi yaba nezinguquko ezibonakalayo.
Lezi zinguquko zamaplanethi zaholela ekwabiweni kabusha kwezidalwa eziphilayo, kokubili izitshalo nezilwane. Isimo sezulu sidlale indima ebalulekile kule nqubo, njengoba sakha izimo ezikahle zesilwane noma isitshalo ukuze sichume noma singachumi endaweni ethile.
I-Oligocene ibilokhu iyinkathi eye yathakazelisa ochwepheshe kulo mkhakha, abaye banikela isikhathi esiningi nomzamo wokucacisa izici ezisafihliwe zalesi sigaba sokwakheka komhlaba.
Izici
Ubude besikhathi
I-Oligocene yathatha iminyaka eyizigidi ezingu-11, iqala eminyakeni eyizigidi ezingu-33,9 edlule futhi inweba kuze kufike eminyakeni eyizigidi ezingu-23 edlule.
Ukuhlelwa kabusha kwamazwekazi
Ngalesi sikhathi, ukunyakaza kwamapuleti ezwekazi kwaqhubeka, ezabalalisa kabusha futhi afinyelela ezikhundleni ezifana nalezi ezikuzo namuhla.
“Inkathi Yezilwane Ezincelisayo”
Iqembu lezilwane ezincelisayo lihlangabezane nokuhlukahluka okukhulu nokuhlukahluka phakathi nalesi sikhathi. Kwavela inani elikhulu leziqephu, njengamagundane nama-canids.
nokwakheka
I-Oligocene kwakuyinkathi yokusebenza okukhulu kwe-orogenic kanye ne-geological. Ngalesi sikhathi, ukuhlukana kwezwekazi elikhulu iPangea kwaqhubeka, izingcezu ziqala ukushintshela ezindaweni zazo zanamuhla.
Ngaphezu kwalokho, ngesikhathi se-Oligocene, izinqubo ezimbili ze-orogenic zenzeka: i-Laramide Orogeny (eyaqala eCretaceous) kanye ne-Alpine Orogeny.
I-Laramide Orogeny
Kwakuyinqubo ye-orogenic enobudlova kakhulu eyabangela ukuguqulwa okuphawulekayo. Kwaphumela ekwakhekeni kwezintaba eziningana ezinqamula ichopho elisentshonalanga yeNyakatho Melika, kusukela e-Alaska kuya eMexico.
Izintaba eziqashelwa kakhulu ezakheka ngesikhathi se-Laramide orogeny yizintaba zaseRocky e-United States kanye ne-Sierra Madre Oriental yaseMexico.
Kwaphumela nasekubonakaleni kwezintaba-mlilo eziningana, kangangokuthi kwezinye izindawo kwaba nokusakazwa kwenani elikhulu lezinto ezibangelwa ukuqhuma kwentaba-mlilo.
I-Alpine Orogeny
Kwakuyinqubo ye-orogenic eyavela ekuhambeni nokushayisana kwamapuleti amaningana e-tectonic. Kubalulekile ukukhumbula ukuthi le nkathi yayingeminye yemisebenzi emikhulu mayelana nokunyakaza kwezwekazi. Ngalo mqondo, kwaba khona ukungqubuzana kwezingcezu ezintathu zomhlaba (i-Afrika, iCimmeria, neNdiya ehambisanayo) ne-Eurasia eyizwekazi elikhulu.
Njengakunoma iyiphi inqubo yokuma komhlaba, ukungqubuzana kwalezi zindawo ezinkulu zomhlaba kwaphumela ekuphakameni kwezingxenye ezithile zezwe, zakha izintaba eziningana, eziseningizimu yamazwekazi aseYurophu nase-Asia naseNyakatho Afrika.
Okuwukuphela kokhahlamba lwezintaba zezwekazi lase-Afrika futhi olwakhiwe ngenxa ye-Alpine orogeny yizintaba ze-Atlas. Ngesikhathi sisezwekazini laseYurophu, kwakhiwa i-Apennines, Alps, Balkan, neCaucasus, phakathi kwezinye. Futhi e-Asia, ukhahlamba lwezintaba olubangelwa le nqubo yokuma komhlaba amaHimalaya, amaHindu Kush, neKarakorum.
I-Tectonic plate movement
Ukuhlukana kwezwekazi elikhulu iPangea kwaba sobala kakhulu ngokuhlukaniswa kocezu oluhambisana neNingizimu Melika, olwaqala ukuhamba kancane luya ngasentshonalanga, ukuhlangana neNyakatho Melika futhi lwakha izwekazi laseMelika njengoba yaziwa namuhla.
Ngokufanayo, i-Antarctica yaqhubeka nokuhlukana kwayo namanye amazwekazi futhi yajulisa isembozo sayo seqhwa.
Ngokufanayo, ngokweziphetho ezifinyelelwe ochwepheshe abahlukahlukene, phakathi nalesi sikhathi ipuleti elihambisana nezwekazi lase-Afrika lashayisana ne-Eurasia, njengoba kwenza ucezu oluhambisana neNdiya njengamanje.
Ekupheleni kwale nkathi, izindawo zomhlaba zazihlelwe ngendlela efanayo nanamuhla. Kungokufanayo nasezilwandle, njengoba izilwandle eziningana ezihlukanisa amazwekazi zase zakhiwe namuhla. Lezi zihlanganisa i-Pacific Ocean, i-Atlantic Ocean, kanye ne-Indian Ocean.
Tempo
Izimo zezulu ngesikhathi se-Oligocene zazidlulele, zibonakala ngamazinga okushisa aphansi kakhulu.
Ngalesi sikhathi, i-Antarctica neGreenland zahlala zimbozwe yiqhwa, njengoba kunjalo nanamuhla. Ngokufanayo, lapho i-Antarctica ihlukana ngokuphelele neNingizimu Melika, yabangela imisinga yolwandle eminingana ukuba ijikeleze kuyo, i-Antarctic Circumpolar ingenye ebaluleke kakhulu, njengoba yayibhekele ukumbozwa kweqhwa e-Antarctic kanye nokwakheka kwezinguzunga zeqhwa.
Lokhu kwehla okuqhubekayo kwezinga lokushisa eMhlabeni kubangele ukuguqulwa kwezinye izimiso zemvelo. Amahlathi e-Coniferous namaqabunga, akwazi ukusinda emazingeni okushisa aphansi, agcwele.
ukuphila
Phakathi ne-Oligocene, ukuhlukahluka kokuphila kwaqhubeka, kokubili izitshalo nezilwane. Nakuba isimo sezulu sasinzima ngandlela-thile, izinto eziphilayo zazikwazi ukuzivumelanisa nazo futhi zasinda.
Flora
E-Oligocene, ama-angiosperms (izitshalo ezinembewu eboshwe) aqala ukusabalala ezindaweni eziningi, afinyelela ukubusa ezinakho namuhla.
Ngalesi sikhathi, amahlathi asezindaweni ezishisayo ehla noma ehla, athathelwa indawo izitshalo nezindawo ezinotshani. Lesi sakamuva sasakazekela kuwo wonke amazwekazi: eMelika, e-Asia, eYurophu nase-Afrika.
Izitshalo ze-Herbaceous zibe nempumelelo enkulu ekuziphendukeleni kwemvelo futhi zajwayela ngenxa yezimpawu zazo ezihlukile zokukhula. Izitshalo ze-Herbaceous zinezinga lokukhula eliqhubekayo, elingapheli.
Ngokufanayo, lolu hlobo lwesitshalo kwakudingeka lubhekane nemiphumela yezilwane ezazisinyathela, zisidla. Nokho, zakwazi ukuphila zaze zakha ubuhlobo bokubambisana, njengoba lezi zilwane zasiza ekusakazeni imbewu ngendle yazo.
Ngokuhambisana nemigqa efanayo, izitshalo ezifana ne-legume, njengobhontshisi, nazo zathuthukiswa ngalesi sikhathi.
Izilwane zasendle
Ngesikhathi se-Oligocene, amaqembu amaningi ezilwane ahlukahluka futhi achuma naphezu kokushintsha kwezimo zezulu. Phakathi kwamaqembu ezilwane akhula phakathi nalesi sikhathi kukhona izinyoni, izilwane ezihuquzelayo nezilwane ezincelisayo.
Ngalesi sikhathi, kwakunezinhlobonhlobo zezinyoni, kanye nezilwane ezihuquzelayo. Nokho, iqembu eladuma kakhulu kwakuyizilwane ezincelisayo. Kubalulekile ukuqaphela ukuthi i-Cenozoic, lapho le nkathi, yaziwa ngokuthi "iminyaka yezilwane ezincelisayo."
AmaMamferfer
Kwakungelinye lamaqembu ezilwane aphumelela kakhulu ngaleso sikhathi. Kwavela inani elikhulu lezinhlobo ezintsha ezincelisayo: amagundane, ama-canids, ama-primates, nama-cetaceans.
Ama-Rodents
Ukuhleleka kwamagundane ( amagundane ) liningi kakhulu eqenjini lezilwane ezincelisayo. Isici sayo esihlukile ngamazinyo ayo acijile abukhali kakhulu, asetshenziselwa izinhloso eziningi, njengezilwane ezidla ezinye ezilumayo noma ukhuni oluququdayo (yingakho igama laso).
Omunye wemindeni eyaziwa kakhulu yamagundane e-Oligocene kwaba Eomyidae Lezi zazifana nezingwejeje zesimanje, ezinobukhulu bomzimba omncane kanye nemikhuba ye-arboreal. Ngaphezu kwalokho, abanye babekwazi ukutshuza besuka kwesinye isihlahla baye kwesinye.
Izimfundamakhwela
Izilwane ezincelisayo ziyiqembu lezilwane ezincelisayo ezibonakala ngeminwe emihlanu emaphethelweni, isithupha esiphikiswayo, izinyawo zezitshalo (ziphumule ematheni onyawo ukuze zinyakaze), ngaphezu kwephethini yamazinyo evamile, lapho amazinyo engakhethekile kakhulu.
Ngokusho kochwepheshe kulo mkhakha, izilwane ezifuywayo ezingabonwa ngalesi sikhathi yi-lemur ne-tarsier.
I-tarsier iyinkawu encane, ecishe ibe ngu-10 cm ubude. Isici sayo se-anatomical amehlo ayo amakhulu, ayivumela ukuthi ivumelane nombono wayo ebumnyameni. Ziyi-arboreal, okusho ukuthi zichitha isikhathi esiningi sezimpilo zazo zilenga emagatsheni ezihlahla.
I-lemur iyi-primate, kuye ngokuthi i-subspecies, ingahluka ngosayizi. Esinye sezici zayo ezigqame kakhulu umsila wayo omude, ngokuvamile omude kunomzimba wayo. Zinamehlo amakhulu, azivumela ukuthi zibone ebumnyameni. Abakwazi ukuhlukanisa imibala, nakuba bekwazi ukuhlukanisa izimo. Ziyizilwane ezithandanayo kakhulu.
Ama-canids
Izilwane ezinjengezimpisi nezinja ziyingxenye yaleli qembu. Zibonakala ngokuba nemizimba ephakathi nendawo nokuhamba ngezinzwane zazo.
Bayizilwane ezidla inyama. Izibonelo zokuqala zaleli qembu zavela ku-Eocene futhi kamuva zahlukahluka, zisekhona kuze kube yilolu suku.
AmaCetaceans
Leli yiqembu lezilwane ezincelisayo ezikwazile ukujwayela impilo yasolwandle ngempumelelo. Zibonakala ngokuthi imilenze yangaphambili ishintshile yaba amaphiko, kuyilapho izitho zangemuva zinyamalele. Ziphefumula amaphaphu, okusho ukuthi kufanele zivele zidlulele phezulu ukuze ziphefumule.
Phakathi kwama-cetaceans ahlala olwandle ngesikhathi se-Oligocene, singabala i-Aeticetus ne-Kentriodon, phakathi kwabanye.
Isilwane esincelisayo esikhulu kunazo zonke
Ngesikhathi se-Oligocene kwakuhlala isilwane esincelisayo esikhulu kunazo zonke emhlabeni, i I-Paraceratherium . Ayengaba amamitha ayisishiyagalombili ukuphakama futhi angaba amamitha angu-7 ubude.
Kwakuyizilwane ezidla utshani ezinomuzwa wokuhogela othuthuke kakhulu. Ucwaningo lusikisela ukuthi kwakungezona izilwane ezikwazi ukuxhumana nabantu, kodwa kunalokho babephila impilo yodwa. Kukholakala ukuthi abesilisa babevame ukulwa phakathi kwabo ukuze abesifazane banake ngesikhathi sokukhwelana.
Ngokusobala, balwa bodwa ngokungqubuzana amakhanda, bezithola sebevikelwe ngokwanele amathambo ogebhezi oluminyene kakhulu.
Iziqephu
Inkathi ye-Oligocene yahlukaniswa yaba iminyaka emibili:
- I-Rupeliense: iqanjwe ngomfula waseBelgium, iRupel. Isuka eminyakeni eyizigidi ezingama-38 edlule yaya eminyakeni eyizigidi ezingama-33 edlule, yathatha iminyaka eyizigidi ezi-5.
- I-Chattiense: Kwakuyinkathi yakamuva kakhulu ye-Oligocene. Igama layo lisuselwa ku-"chatti," isizwe sasendulo samaJalimane. Kwakuyinkathi ethule, lapho izenzakalo ezibaluleke kakhulu zazihlobene nomsebenzi omkhulu wentaba-mlilo owaqoshwa entshonalanga yezwekazi laseNyakatho Melika. Yathatha iminyaka eyizigidi ezi-5, kusukela ekusungulweni kwayo eminyakeni eyizigidi ezingama-33 edlule kuya ekupheleni kwayo eminyakeni eyizigidi ezingama-28 edlule.
Izinkomba
- U-Berta A, u-Sumich J no-Kovacs KM. (20119. Izilwane Ezincelisayo Zasolwandle. I-Evolutionary Biology. 2nd ed. California: Academic Press
- UCox, C. Barry noMoore, uPeter D. (1993): I-Biogeography. Indlela ye-Ecological and Evolutionary (5th ed.). IBlackwell Scientific Publications, eCambridge
- Donald R. Prothero (1993). Inguquko ye-Eocene-Oligocene: IPharadesi Elilahlekile. Columbia University Press
- Haines, uTim;Ukuhamba Nezilwane: I-Prehistoric Safari, (ENew York: Dorling Kindersley Publishing, Inc., 1999
- U-Rögl, F. (1997). Ukucatshangelwa kwe-Paleogeographic ye-Mediterranean kanye ne-Paratethys seaways (Oligocene kuya e-Miocene). I-Naturhistorisches Museum