- Ukubaluleka kwale ncwadi kubumba imikhuba yokufunda, izithameli ezingaba khona, kanye nezindlela zokudlulisela izinkulumo zesikhathi esidlule.
- Kusukela kumathebulethi kuya ezincwadini ezibhalwe ngephepha, ifomethi ngayinye ibhekana nezidingo ezithile zokuphatheka kalula, ukusetshenziswa ngokubambisana, noma ukufunda ngasese.
- Imishini yokunyathelisa kanye nabashicileli abanjengoGutenberg no-Aldo Manuzio bandise kakhulu ukufinyelela olwazini, bakha imiphakathi emisha yabafundi.
- Ngisho nasenkathini yedijithali, i-codex ephrintiwe isalokhu ibalulekile kokuhlangenwe nakho kokufunda kanye nokwakheka kwenkumbulo yomlando.
Ubudlelwano phakathi kwezincwadi, abafundi, kanye nezinkumbulo zesikhathi esidlule yindaba ende, egcwele izinguquko kwezobuchwepheshe, izimpi zamandla, kanye nezenzo zokufunda eziseduze ezishintshe inkambo yesiko. Kusukela kubumba lwaseMesopotamiya kuya kuzikrini zedijithali, ukudlula ezincwadini zesikhumba, ama-codex, kanye nezincwadi ezibhalwe ngephepha, uhlobo ngalunye lwezinto ezibonakalayo lwencwadi luye lwabumba nendlela esicabanga ngayo, esikholelwa kuyo, esithandazayo, esitadisha ngayo, ngisho nesenza ngayo ezombusazwe.
Uma sixoxa “ngokukhona kwesikhathi esidlule, izincwadi, kanye nabafundi,” singena endaweni yonke lapho ucwaningo lomlando , olufana nolukaRoger Chartier, luhambisana khona nokubuka okunentshisekelo kwabafundi abanjengo-Alberto Manguel. Ngakolunye uhlangothi, umlando wokufunda ujwayela kanye nezifunda zokushicilela; ngakolunye uhlangothi, okuhlangenwe nakho okucishe kube ngokomzimba kokukhetha incwadi ngobukhulu bayo, ukuthungwa kwayo, isembozo sayo, kanye nendlela efanelana ngayo esandleni somuntu noma esikhwameni. Ndawonye, le mibono ibonisa ukuthi inkathi ngayinye yasungula kanjani uhlobo lwencwadi olufanele abafundi bayo - nokuthi sizuza kanjani, siguqula kanjani, futhi siqhubeka kanjani nokunikeza lezi zinto ukuphila.
Ukuba khona kwesikhathi esidlule: izinkulumo, abafundi, kanye nentando yeningi.
Umsebenzi wezazi-mlando ezifana noRoger Chartier ubonisa ukuthi imibhalo yesikhathi esidlule ayiwona nje amagama agcinwe ephepheni , kodwa izinkulumo ezivela ezimweni ezithile zomphakathi nezamasiko. Lezi zinkulumo zasakazwa ngezinsizakusebenza ezahlukahlukene, zahlelwa, zanqunywa, zahunyushwa, zahlungwa, zaphawulwa, futhi, ngaphezu kwakho konke, zafundwa ngezindlela ezahlukene enkathini ngayinye. Kukulolu chungechunge lokukhiqiza, ukusakazwa, kanye nokwamukelwa lapho isikhathi esidlule siba khona khona.
UChartier ugcizelela ukubaluleka kokuqonda hhayi nje kuphela lokho okushiwo yimibhalo, kodwa nendlela eyamukelwa futhi yasetshenziswa ngayo : ukuthi obani ababekwazi ukuyifinyelela, ukuthi ifundwe kuziphi izikhala, ukuthi ifundwe ngokuzwakalayo noma buthule, ukuthi ngabe yakhonza ngomthandazo, ukufunda, ukuzijabulisa, noma ukukholisa kwezombusazwe. Ukubaluleka kwale ncwadi - uhlobo lokubhala, ifomethi, intengo, ukubopha - kubeka izilaleli ezingaba khona esimweni. Umqulu omkhulu wekwaya, obhalwe ephepheni, onezinhlamvu ezinkulu, usho ukufundwa kwebandla esontweni; incwajana encane ye-octavo, engabizi, ingena ephaketheni futhi ivula indlela yokufunda komuntu ngamunye kanye neselula.
Abashicileli nabaphrinta badlala indima ebalulekile ekuguquleni imibhalo ibe yizinto eziphathekayo . Ngokukhetha ukuthi yini okufanele ishicilelwe, ukwenza amafomethi afane, ukunquma ukuthi kuphrintiwe kanjani kanye namanani, babumba indawo yokufunda engaba khona yesikhathi esithile. Ukushicilela akuyona imininingwane yobuchwepheshe: kuwukulamula kwamasiko nezepolitiki. Ngokuhlela kabusha imibhalo ibe izahluko, amaqoqo, uchungechunge olushibhile noma olunethezekile, ukushicilela kubhala kabusha, empeleni, ukuthi isikhathi esidlule sifinyelela kanjani kithi.
KuChartier, isifundo somlando kanye "nobukhona besikhathi esidlule" sinobubanzi bezepolitiki ngokusobala : ukunikeza izakhamuzi amathuluzi abalulekile okuhlonza amanga, ukudiliza ukukhohlisa, nokwakha ulwazi oluqinile. Ngaphandle kwaleli khono lokufunda ngokuhlolisisa, eliqhutshwa yizincwadi, izingobo zomlando, kanye nenkumbulo ebhaliwe, intando yeningi ngokwayo iyasongelwa. Ukufunda isikhathi esidlule, ngalomqondo, akuyona into yokukhumbula isikhathi esidlule, kodwa kuyindlela yokusebenzisa inkululeko.
Lo mbono uhlangana nokuhlangenwe nakho okuseduze kwabafundi abavamile , abakhetha izincwadi zamaholide, zokugibela isitimela, nezokulala kusofa ekhaya. Amaholide asehlobo, isibonelo, kanye nomkhuba wokwakha " izinqwaba zokufunda " zokuzijabulisa zasehlobo kuyizinto ezifinyelelwe muva nje, njengoba kunjalo nokufinyelela izincwadi okunentando yeningi. Kwakukhona isikhathi lapho kokubili isikhathi sokuphumula eside kanye nokuba nezincwadi kwakuyilungelo labambalwa.
Uhambo oluhamba ngomlando wencwadi.
U-Alberto Manguel, ekuhloleni kwakhe okunentshiseko umlando wokufunda , umema umfundi ukuba "abuyele emuva esikhathini" senkulungwane yesine BC ukuze ahlole hhayi kuphela lokho okwakufundwa, kodwa nokuthi yiziphi izinto zokufunda ezazifana ngokoqobo. Kusukela eMesopotamiya kuya emitatsheni yezincwadi yaseVictoria, ubonisa indlela indlela - ubumba, itshe, i-papyrus, isikhumba, iphepha - eyakha ngayo isenzo sokufunda kanye nohlobo lomfundi ayelucabanga.
“Amayunithi okufunda” okuqala aseMesopotamiya kwakuyizibhebhe ezincane zobumba , ngokuvamile eziyisikwele noma eziyisikwele, ububanzi obungaphezu kwamasentimitha ayisikhombisa. Eziningana zazo, ezazigcinwe ezikhwameni zesikhumba noma emabhokisini, zakha “incwadi” eyayingashintshwa ngokulandelana ngokulandelana. Kodwa-ke, kwakukhona nemibhalo ehlukene kakhulu, njengekhodi yomthetho yase-Asiriya enkulu, ebhalwe ku-monolith enobukhulu obungaphezu kwamamitha-skwele ayisithupha, ebhalwe ngamakholomu ezinhlangothini zombili, eyenzelwe ukungabanjwa, kodwa ukumiswa njengereferensi ehloniphekile – ubukhulu bayo, kulokhu, baqinisa igunya lomthetho.
Kusukela odakeni nasetsheni, isiko elibhaliwe laqhubekela phambili laya emiqulwini ye-papyrus neyesikhumba . I-Papyrus, eyenziwe ngeziqu ezomisiwe zesitshalo esifana nomhlanga, yayilula futhi ingagoqwa; isikhumba ne-vellum, ezenziwe ngesikhumba sezilwane ngezindlela ezahlukene, kwakunikeza amandla nokuguquguquka. Lokhu kwabangela imiqulu esiyihlanganisa nemibhalo yasendulo yamaGreki namaRoma kanye nemibhalo yokuphatha. Kodwa lokhu kusekela kwakunemikhawulo uma kuziwa ekudaleni incwadi okwakulula ukuyihlola nokuyichaza.
Inguquko enkulu kwaba ukubonakala kwe-codex , isethi yamaphepha agoqiwe futhi aboshwe ngendlela engunxande. I-codex yobumba yayizoba nzima kakhulu futhi ibe nzima, futhi ama-codex e-papyrus ayevame ukuphuka emagobolondweni. Ngakolunye uhlangothi, isikhumba sasinganqunywa futhi sigoqwe sibe yizilinganiso ezingenamkhawulo, okuvumela amafomethi aphathekayo noma ama-giant eqiniso e-liturgical. Kusukela ngekhulu lesi-4 kuqhubeke, i-codex yaba yinto evelele eYurophu, okwenza imiqulu ibe yinto engasebenzi.
I-codex inikeza izinzuzo ezintsha kumfundi : ivumela ukusetshenziswa kwezinhlangothi zombili zekhasi, inikeza imingcele emikhulu yezincazelo kanye namazwana, futhi ivumela ukuhamba okusheshayo phakathi kwezingxenye zombhalo, ithathe indawo "yokugoqa" okuqondile komqulu ngokugxuma okucishe kube ngokushesha phakathi kwamakhasi. Ukuhleleka kombhalo kuyashintsha kanye nayo: isuka ekuhlukanisweni okusekelwe emandleni angokomzimba omqulu (njengemiqulu engu-24 ye-Iliad) iye ezahlukweni, izincwadi zangaphakathi, kanye nemiqulu engahlanganisa imisebenzi eminingana emifushane ngaphansi kwesembozo esifanayo.
Ngokuthakazelisayo, izikrini zethu zamanje zigcina eminye yemikhawulo yomqulu : zibonisa ingxenye yombhalo ngesikhathi, kuyilapho "siskrola" phezulu noma phansi, silahlekelwa umbono wawo wonke. I-codex, yona, yavumela umuntu ukuba abambe cishe wonke umbhalo ezandleni zakhe, okuqinisa umuzwa wokuphelela. Akuyona into eyenzekile ukuthi uMartial, imbongi yekhulu loku-1, wamangala ngethuba lokuba ne-Iliad yonke encwadini encane yesikhumba, ifaneleke esandleni sakhe.
Amafomethi, ukusetshenziswa, kanye nezikhala zokufunda eNkathini Ephakathi
Uhlobo lwencwadi belulokhu luhlotshaniswa nendawo lapho lugcinwa futhi lufundwe khona . Imiqulu yayibekwa emabhokisini ayindilinga, enamalebula obumba noma esikhumba, noma ibekwe emashalofini anezinkomba ezibonakalayo. Ama-Codices, abekwe ngokuvundlile, ayedinga ifenisha ethile, amakhabethe (ama-armarii), amashalofu aphansi noma aphezulu, afanelana nobukhulu bemiqulu. Ekhulwini lesi-5, uSidonius Apollinaris uchaza indlu yasemaphandleni eGaul enezinhlobo ezahlukene zamashalofu, egcwele izincwadi zakudala zesiLatini zamadoda kanye nezincwadi zokukhulekela zabesifazane.
EYurophu yesikhathi esiphakathi eyayigcwele kakhulu izinkonzo zokukhulekela , enye yezinto ezazithandwa kakhulu zokufunda ngasese kwakuyincwadi yamahora, umbhalo omncane noma umqulu onyathelisiwe oqukethe amahhovisi amafushane anikezelwe kuMariya uMariya, amahubo, izindima zeBhayibheli, iHhovisi Labafileyo, ukunxusa kosanta, kanye nekhalenda. Lezi zincwadi, ezikhanyiswe kakhulu ezimweni eziningi, zazisebenza njengezincwadi zomthandazo eziphathwayo, ezifanele impilo yansuku zonke yabantu abangcwele.
Izincwadi zamahora nazo zaziyizinto zesikhundla nothando : zazinezigqoko zomndeni, izithombe zomnikazi, kanye nezithombe ezincane eziyinkimbinkimbi ezazivuselela izigcawu zeBhayibheli ezindaweni zanamuhla. Zazisebenza njengezipho zomshado phakathi kwezikhulu, futhi kamuva, osomabhizinisi abacebile; ama-workshop akhethekile aseFlemish abusa imakethe, enikeza amakhathalogi ezinketho kumakhasimende kulo lonke elaseYurophu. Ikhophi eyodwa eyayalelwe u-Anne waseBrittany yenziwa ngobukhulu obuqondile besandla sakhe - incwadi ebunjwe ngokoqobo emzimbeni womfundi.
Ngakolunye uhlangothi lwesilinganiso, iSonto lakhiqiza izincwadi ezinkulu zenkonzo yokukhulekela – ama-missal, ama-antiphonaries, izincwadi zamakwaya – ezenzelwe ukufundwa ndawonye ema-altare nasemakwayareni. Imibhalo yesandla efana ne-antiphonary edumile yaseSt. Gall, enezinhlamvu ezinkulu ezifundeka kalula ngabaculi abangafika kwabangamashumi amabili bezungeze i-lectern, ibonisa ukuthi le ncwadi ingaba kanjani “isikhumbuzo” esibonakalayo. Eminye imiqulu yayisinda kakhulu kangangokuthi yayidinga ama-roller ukuze ithuthwe, igcizelela umqondo wokuthi yayingeyendawo eqinile, ehlangene, nenesizotha.
Ukuze ukufunda kube lula, kwavela ifenisha namadivayisi ahlakaniphile : amatafula ahlanganisiwe avumela ukulungisa i-engeli yencwadi, amatafula ajikelezayo anezinhlangothi eziningi ukuze abuke imiqulu eminingana ngasikhathi sinye, izihlalo ezinesekelo lokufunda elihlanganisiwe, njengesihlalo sesiNgisi esimangalisayo sekhulu le-18, lapho umfundi ayehlala khona elele, enesitulo esingemuva nezingalo ezibanzi zokusekela izindololwane.
Nokho, ukufunda kwakungeyona njalo into eyamukelekayo emphakathini . Ngezikhathi zokushushiswa ngokwenkolo, njengasesikhathini sokubusa kukaMary Tudor eNgilandi, amaProthestani ayefihla amaBhayibheli esiNgisi ngaphansi kwamabhentshi, eboshwe ngamaribhoni, ukuze akwazi ukuphendula isihlalo futhi afunde ngobuhlakani. Omunye wabantwana wayegada umnyango ukuze axwayise ngezikhulu ezisondelayo. Lobu buhlakani bezinto ezibonakalayo - ukuguqula ibhentshi libe yindawo yokucasha - bubonisa ukuthi isifiso sokufunda singaphikisana kanjani nemithetho kanye nezingozi ezingokoqobo.
Inguquko yokubhala kaGutenberg
Kuze kube maphakathi nekhulu le-15, ukukhiqiza incwadi kwakuyinqubo ehamba kancane futhi ebizayo , encike kubakopishi abakhethekile, abakhanyisi, kanye nabahlanganisi bezincwadi. Lokhu kwaqinisekisa, ngakolunye uhlangothi, izingcezu zobuhle obukhulu; ngakolunye uhlangothi, kwanciphisa ngonya inani lamakhophi atholakalayo kanye nolwazi olubhaliwe olugxile ezandleni zezikhungo ezicebile, njengezindela namayunivesithi.
UJohann Gutenberg, umkhandi wegolide nomqophi waseMainz, waqaphela ukuthi angasebenzisa amasu okusebenzisa insimbi ezweni lombhalo : esikhundleni sokuqopha amabhlogo aphelele ezinkuni, njengoba kwase kwenziwe kakade ezithombeni, wakha uhlobo lwensimbi oluhambayo, izibunjwa ezijwayelekile, umshini wokunyathelisa ohlanganisa izixazululo ezisetshenziswa ezindaweni zokugcina iwayini kanye nezindawo zokusebenzela zokubopha izincwadi, kanye noyinki osekelwe kumafutha ofanele uhlelo olusha. Phakathi kuka-1450 no-1455, wanyathelisa iBhayibheli elidumile elinemigqa engu-42.
Umuntu owayephila ngaleso sikhathi, u-Enea Silvio Piccolomini (uPapa Pius II wesikhathi esizayo), wachaza ngokumangala ukucaca kombhalo kanye nenani lamakhophi athengiswayo eFrankfurt. Kulinganiselwa ukuthi kwakhiqizwa amakhophi aphakathi kuka-158 no-180 aleli Bhayibheli - inani elihlaba umxhwele ngaleso sikhathi. Phakathi namashumi ambalwa eminyaka, lokhu kwasakazeka okusha: kwakukhona imishini yokunyathelisa e-Italy ngo-1465, eFrance ngo-1470, eSpain ngo-1472, eHolland naseNgilandi ngo-1475, naseDenmark ngo-1489. Ezweni Elisha, umshini wokunyathelisa wokuqala osebenzayo wavela eMexico City ngo-1533, futhi kamuva, eCambridge, eMassachusetts, ngo-1638.
Okubizwa ngokuthi i-incunabula – izincwadi ezanyatheliswa ngaphambi kuka-1500 – sezizonke zazingaphezu kwezingu-30 . Ukunyatheliswa kwakungadluli amakhophi ayinkulungwane, futhi amaningi ayengaphansi kuka-250, kodwa ukukhuphuka kwenani, maqondana nesikhathi sombhalo wesandla, kuyamangalisa. Okokuqala ngqa, abafundi abahlukaniswe kakhulu emkhathini babekwazi ukuphatha amakhophi afanayo ombhalo ofanayo, kwakha uhlobo olusha lomphakathi wokufunda.
Ngokuthakazelisayo, umshini wokunyathelisa awuzange uwususe umbhalo wesandla . Ngokuphambene nalokho: abanyathelisi bokuqala balingisa isitayela semibhalo yesandla, futhi ama-incunabula amaningi afana nama-codex akopishwe izindela. Ngekhulu le-16 ngokwalo, kwavela ukuphakama kokunyathelisa, izincwadi ezinhle kakhulu ze-calligraphy, okubonisa ukuthi ukwazisa ubuhle bombhalo wesandla kwakuhambisana nokuthakaselwa kokunyatheliswa. Intuthuko yezobuchwepheshe, esikhundleni sokubulala imikhuba yangaphambilini, ivame ukuvuselela udumo lwayo.
Namuhla, kwenzeka into efanayo ngezincwadi ezinyathelisiwe kanye nemibhalo yedijithali . Naphezu kokwanda kwezincwadi ze-e kanye nezizindalwazi ku-CD-ROM noma ku-inthanethi, izibalo zibonisa ukuthi akukho ukuwohloka kokukhiqizwa kwama-codex ephepha. Abafundi bayaqhubeka nokufisa isenzo sokufunda amakhasi, iphunga lamakhasi, isisindo somzimba somthamo - izinto ezenza incwadi ibe yinto yamasiko enobukhona obuqinile bezinto ezibonakalayo, hhayi nje ukwesekwa okungaqondakali kolwazi.
U-Aldo Manuzio, amafomethi aphathekayo kanye nabafundi abasebenzisa izilimi zobuntu
Njengoba umshini wokunyathelisa usuhlanganisiwe, inkinga yaphela “ukuphatha ukunyathelisa” yaba “ukuthi ubani okufanele anyathelise kanjani nokuthi ubani okufanele anyathelise .” Ekupheleni kwekhulu le-15, ngemva kokuwa kweConstantinople kanye nokufuduka kwezazi zamaGreki ziya e-Italy, iVenice yaba yisikhungo sezifundo zakudala. Kungalesi simo lapho u-Aldo Manuzio, umuntu othanda isintu, anquma ukuba ngumnyathelisi ukuze anikeze abafundi bakhe izinhlelo ezinokwethenjelwa neziphathekayo zabalobi besiGreki nesiLatini.
U-Aldo uhlela ilabhorethri yokushicilela yeqiniso yabantu : umema ochwepheshe abavela kulo lonke elaseYurophu, abuke kabusha imibhalo yasendulo, aqhathanise izinhlobo ezahlukene, futhi akhethe izinhlobo zokubhekisela. Ushicilela izinhlelo zesiGreki zikaSophocles, u-Aristotle, uPlato, uThucydides, phakathi kwabanye, futhi kamuva wandisa ikhathalogi ukuze ifake uVirgil, uHorace, u-Ovid, uDante, noPetrarch. Umgomo wakhe ukuthi abafundi baxoxe "ngaphandle kwabalamuli" nababhali basendulo, ngakho-ke ubeka phambili imibhalo ngolimi lokuqala futhi anciphise ukuphawula.
Ukuqamba okusha okukhulu kuka-Aldo akugcini nje ngokuba ngokolimi, kodwa futhi kusemthethweni . Ngo-1501, eqaphela isidingo sezincwadi eziwusizo kakhulu zemitapo yolwazi yangasese kanye nokuhamba, wethula uchungechunge olunefomethi ye-octavo, oluncane nolulula, olungena ephaketheni. Ukuze asebenzise kangcono isikhala sekhasi, wasebenzisa uhlobo olu-italic (noma i-Aldino), olwaklanywa nguFrancesco Griffo, olunikeza ubuhle nokufundeka, lunciphise ukubukeka, futhi luthuthukise ubuhle bombhalo.
Lezi "zincwadi zakudala ezitholakala ephaketheni" ziguqula ubudlelwano phakathi kwabafundi nemisebenzi edumile . Akusadingeki ukuba nencwadi enkulu neyinobukhazikhazi ukuze ufunde uVirgil noma uPetrarch; ikhophi engabizi kakhulu, yasemaphandleni igcwalisa indima efanayo yobuhlakani. Udumo luyashintsha, ngokwengxenye, kusukela ebukhazikhazini bezinto ezibonakalayo kuya ekhwalithini yokuqukethwe kanye nenhloko-dolobha engokomfanekiso "yokuphatha izincwadi zakudala ephaketheni lakho" - kuze kube seqophelweni lokuthi, eziqondisweni zokuhlekisa eziya eVenice yekhulu le-16, izifebe ezihlakaniphile zichazwa zibonisa izinhlelo ze-Aldo njengobufakazi bokuthuthuka.
Imodeli kaManuzio yasakazeka kulo lonke elaseYurophu : u-Elzevir, uPlantin, u-Estienne, uGryphe, nabanye abaphrinta baphinde bakopisha ifomethi encane nenhle, okwenza kwaba yinto evamile ukucabanga ngomfundi ehamba nomqulu omncane, esikhundleni sokuthembela emitatsheni emikhulu, ehleliwe. Lapho u-Aldo eshona, abanye abantu abasekela isintu babheka izincwadi zakhe njengabaqaphi abami eduze kwebhokisi lakhe - isikhumbuzo esingokomfanekiso kumuntu owasungula kabusha indlela yokunikeza ifomu umbhalo.
Kusukela ezincwadini zesikole kuya ezincwadini zabantu ezidumile (cordel).
Ngokukhula kwenani labafundi phakathi kwekhulu le-16 nele-18 , kwavela izinhlobo ezintsha zezincwadi ezivumelaniswe nokubhala kwasekuqaleni kanye nokusetshenziswa okuthandwayo. Isibonelo esiphawulekayo "yincwadi yezinhlamvu": ibhodi elincane lokhuni, elivame ukuba nesibambo, lapho kwakunamatheliswa khona ishidi elinezinhlamvu zamagama, izinombolo, futhi, kwezinye izimo, uMthandazo weNkosi. Ishidi lophondo elibonakalayo lalivikela iphepha ekuthinteni kweminwe yezingane.
Lezi zincwadi zama-alfabhethi, empeleni, zaziyindlela yokuqala yokuxhumana kwezingane eziningi "nencwadi ." Ezilula, eziqinile, futhi ezingasetshenziswa kabusha, zazibavumela ukuthi bafunde izinhlamvu nezinombolo ekhaya noma ezikoleni ezincane. Izakhiwo ezifanayo, njenge-"amabhodi omthandazo" asetshenziswa ezimweni zobuSulumane e-Afrika ukufundisa i-Quran, zibonisa ukuthi amasiko ahlukene adale kanjani amathuluzi okufunda ayisisekelo ngezinto ezitholakala kalula kanye nezinhlobo ezifanayo.
Phakathi naleso sikhathi, izincwadi ezidumile ezazithengiswa emibukisweni nasemigwaqweni zachuma . Lezi kwakuyizincwajana ezimfushane - izincwadi zesahluko ezidumile - eziqukethe ama-ballad, izindaba zothando, izindaba ezikhuthazayo, nezindaba ezimangalisayo. Njengoba zigoqwe ngesishiyagalombili, zasebenzisa iphepha ngokugcwele ukukhiqiza amakhasi ayi-16; kamuva, lapho zigoqwe ngeshumi nambili, zafinyelela amakhasi angama-24, usayizi ofana nezincwadi zanamuhla zephepha eligoqiwe.
Lezi zincwajana, ezingabizi futhi eziphrintiwe kakhulu ngokwezindinganiso zangaleso sikhathi, zazisakazwa kabanzi phakathi kwabafundi abaswele . Uhlobo lwazo oluphansi, oluvame ukunyatheliswa ephepheni elisezingeni eliphansi elinokushicilela okuyisisekelo, aluzange luzivimbe ekubeni yimoto ebalulekile yokucabanga, izingoma, izinganekwane, ngisho nokugxekwa komphakathi. Izinto zazo ezilula zasiza ekubhidlizeni izithiyo zokufinyelela: akekho owayedinga amashalofu ezincwadi acwengekile ukuze agcine incwajana eyayingagoqwa ephaketheni noma ilengiswe ngentambo.
Ngesikhathi esifanayo, abashicileli abacebile bagxila ezincwadini ezifunwa kakhulu : ukunyatheliswa kabusha kwezincwadi zenkolo ezithengiswa kakhulu, imisebenzi yoBaba beSonto, izincwadi zesikole, uhlelo lolimi, kanye nemibhalo yezomthetho. Ngakho-ke imakethe yokushicilela yaba yizigaba: ngakolunye uhlangothi, imiqulu emikhulu, "ephephile" yezilaleli ezizinzile; ngakolunye uhlangothi, izinhlobo eziningi ezincane, ezisheshayo, nezivivinyayo ezihlola ukunambitheka kwabafundi abasha.
Kusukela ngekhulu le-19 kuya ekuthuthukisweni kwencwadi yesimanje ebhalwe ngesandla.
Ngekhulu le-19, le ncwadi yavumelana nenkathi yonxiwankulu basemadolobheni, izitimela, nezindlu ezincane . Ukubopha izindwangu kwathatha indawo yesikhumba esibizayo, okuvumela izihloko nezikhangiso ukuthi zinyatheliswe ezimbozweni. Ifomethi ye-octavo yaba yindinganiso yamanoveli nezindatshana, ihlanganisa ukusebenza kanye nokuba khona okubonakalayo emashalofini ezincwadi okwaqala ukuvela ezindlini zokuhlala eziphakathi nendawo nasezindlini zasemadolobheni.
Ngokuthuthuka kwezitimela, "incwadi yokuhamba" yavela ngokusobala . Abashicileli kanye nezinkampani zezincwadi ezifana ne-WH Smith eNgilandi bamisa ama-kiosk eziteshini, benikeza amaqoqo abizwa ngokuthi i-Railway Library, i-Traveller's Library, kanye nolunye uchungechunge oluklanyelwe ukuthengwa imizuzu embalwa ngaphambi kokugibela. Umfundi waqala ukuhlobanisa ubukhulu bezincwadi ezithile nokusetshenziswa ezitimeleni, emabhishi nasemahhotela - okuyisandulela sohlu lokufunda lwamaholide lwanamuhla.
EJalimane, indlu yokushicilela iReclam yathatha isinyathelo esibalulekile ngo-1867 ngokusungula i-Universal-Bibliothek , yaqala nge-Faust kaGoethe yaze yanwebeka kubabhali abanjengoGogol, uPushkin, u-Ibsen, uPlato, noKant. Izincwadi ezincane, zasemaphandleni ezinezembozo ezilula namanani amancane zenza izincwadi zakudala zatholakala kalula kubafundi kanye nabasebenzi ngokufanayo. Ukugxila kwakucacile: ukudela ukunethezeka ukuze kusatshalaliswe izincwadi ngobuningi.
Ngo-1935, umshicileli waseNgilandi u-Allen Lane washintsha lo mkhankaso ngokuzalwa kwezincwadi zePenguin . Enganelisekile ngokuntuleka kwezincwadi ezingabizi futhi ezisezingeni eliphezulu ezindaweni zokuthenga izincwadi, wacabanga iqoqo lasemaphandleni elinezembozo ezimibalabala namanani aphansi, elalizothengiswa hhayi ezitolo zezincwadi kuphela, kodwa noma kuphi: ezitolo ezinkulu, ezitolo zikagwayi, emakhefi. Ipenguin esesembozweni yaba uphawu lohlobo olusha lokuba yisakhamuzi sokufunda.
Lo mbono waqala wabhekana nokuphikiswa emakethe – abanye abashicileli babengabaza, abathengisi bezincwadi babesaba izinzuzo eziphansi, abanye ababhali bakhathazekile ngokubona imisebenzi yabo “incishiswa intengo.” Kodwa umphakathi wasabela kahle, izitolo ezinkulu ezifana neWoolworth zatshala imali eqoqweni, futhi ngesikhathi esifushane, izigidi zamakhophi zasakazeka emhlabeni wonke. I-Penguin yaveza okuthile okunamandla: izincwadi ezisezingeni eliphezulu zingaphathwa njengento yansuku zonke yabathengi, etholakala yonke indawo njengamasokisi noma itiye.
Kwabaningi abafundi, ukuba nePenguin ephaketheni labo kusho ukuhlanganyela emphakathini wokufunda womhlaba wonke . Izihloko ezifanayo zitholakala emadolobheni akude, emazwenikazi ahlukene, okudala uhlobo lwendawo ethinta inhliziyo lapho incwadi engabizi, enyatheliswe ephepheni elincane, ithola khona inani elikhulu elingokomfanekiso. Incwadi yesimanje ebhalwe phansi ihlanganisa umqondo wokuthi ukufinyelela emasikweni abhaliwe kufanele kube banzi ngangokunokwenzeka.
Izinsalela zezinto ezibonakalayo zesikhathi esidlule enkathini yedijithali.
Ekupheleni kwekhulu lama-20 nasekuqaleni kwekhulu lama-21, ukufika kwamakhompyutha omuntu siqu kanye nokufunda esikrinini kwakhuthaza iziprofetho mayelana "nokuphela kwencwadi ." Noma kunjalo, ukukhiqizwa kwezincwadi ezinyathelisiwe akuzange kume; imitapo yolwazi efana neLibrary of Congress e-USA iyaqhubeka nokufaka amakhulu ezinkulungwane zezihloko ezintsha minyaka yonke. Ukuba khona kwama-codex ephepha kanye nombhalo wedijithali kuvuselela ukungezwani okudala phakathi kwemiqulu nama-codex, imibhalo yesandla kanye nemisebenzi enyathelisiwe.
Ukutholwa kwezinto zakudala muva nje kusikhumbuza ukuthi ingqikithi yenkinga ibilokhu ifana : indlela yokudala izinto eziqinile, eziphathekayo, ezihlala isikhathi eside, nezilula ukuzisebenzisa. E-oasis yaseDakhla eSahara, abavubukuli bathole i-codex yokubala yekhulu lesi-4, eyenziwe ngemicu yokhuni emincane, enezimbobo eboshwe ndawonye ngezintambo - efana kakhulu, ngomoya, nencwadi yasemaphandleni. Iqopha iminyaka emine yokuthengiselana kwezolimo, ubufakazi bokuthi, kusukela ekuqaleni, ifomethi "yencwadi yamanothi eboshwe" yasebenza ukuhlela ulwazi oluyinkimbinkimbi lube umzimba owodwa.
Lokhu kuqhubeka kwezinto ezibonakalayo kuthatha izinkulungwane zeminyaka futhi kuxhumanisa umfundi ongaziwa ogwadule nomfundi odwebela iPenguin esitimeleni, kumuntu ozinikele enkathini ephakathi nencwadi yakhe yamahora, kumuntu othanda i-Renaissance obhala nge-Aldo ngombhalo oqoshiwe. Izinto zokwakha, ubuchwepheshe bokukhiqiza kabusha, amanethiwekhi okusabalalisa ayashintsha; okusele isidingo sokunikeza umbhalo umzimba oguquguqukayo, ongavulwa, uvalwe, ubhalwe ngamagama afingqiwe, uthwalwe uye embhedeni, uye edeskini, uye ogwini lolwandle, noma uye ekudingisweni.
Ngokuhamba kulo mlando omude wezinhlobo nezimpawu – amaphilisi obumba, ama-monolith asemthethweni, imiqulu ye-papyrus, ama-codex e-parchment, izincwadi ezincane zamahora, ama-antiphonaries amakhulu, izincwadi ze-alfabhethi zesikole, izincwadi ze-chap, izincwadi zakudala ezincane, amaqoqo ashibhile ekhulu lama-20 – siyaqaphela ukuthi “izinsalela zesikhathi esidlule” azigcini nje ngokuba imibhalo yasendulo egciniwe, kodwa nemikhuba yokufunda, izinto eziqondile, nezinqumo zokuhlela ezakha umphakathi. Ukufunda ukufunda ngokujulile le mikhondo, njengoba uChartier ephakamisa, nokuzizwela mathupha injabulo yangempela yencwadi, njengoba uManguel elandisa, kuyindlela enamandla yokugcina inkumbulo yomlando iphila nokusekela isiko lentando yeningi esisathembele, namuhla, ekuhlanganeni phakathi kwezincwadi nabafundi.
